Editing Mary I of England (section)

==Reign==
One of Mary's first actions as queen was to order the release of the Roman Catholic [[Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk]], and [[Stephen Gardiner]] from imprisonment in the Tower of London, as well as her kinsman [[Edward Courtenay, 1st Earl of Devon (1553 creation)|Edward Courtenay]].<ref>Waller, p. 59; Whitelock, p. 181.</ref> Mary understood that the young Lady Jane was essentially a pawn in Northumberland's scheme, and Northumberland was the only conspirator of rank executed for [[high treason]] in the immediate aftermath of the attempted coup. Lady Jane and her husband, [[Lord Guildford Dudley]], though found guilty, were kept under guard in the Tower rather than immediately executed, while Lady Jane's father, [[Henry Grey, 1st Duke of Suffolk]], was released.<ref>Waller, pp. 59–60; Whitelock, pp. 185–186.</ref> Mary was left in a difficult position, as almost all the Privy Counsellors had been implicated in the plot to put Lady Jane on the throne.<ref>Whitelock, p. 182.</ref> She appointed Gardiner to the council and made him both [[Bishop of Winchester]] and Lord Chancellor, offices he held until his death in November 1555. Susan Clarencieux became [[Mistress of the Robes]].<ref>Whitelock, p. 183.</ref> On 1 October 1553, Gardiner [[Coronation of Mary I of England|crowned]] Mary at [[Westminster Abbey]].<ref>Porter, pp. 257–261; Whitelock, pp. 195–197.</ref>

===Spanish marriage===
{{Multiple image|image1=Edward Courtenay 1st Earl of Devon.jpg|image2=El cardenal Reginald Pole, por Sebastiano del Piombo.jpg|total_width=350|footer=[[Edward Courtenay, 1st Earl of Devon]] and Cardinal [[Reginald Pole]]: both were potential candidates for marriage}}
[[File:Philip II.jpg|thumb|right|Philip of Spain by [[Titian]]]]
Now aged 37, Mary turned her attention to finding a husband and producing an heir, which would prevent Elizabeth (still next in line under the terms of [[Henry VIII's will]] and the [[Act of Succession of 1544]]) from succeeding to the throne. While the English expected her to marry, there was a general consensus that the Queen should not marry a foreigner, since that could lead to the interference of a foreign power in English affairs.<ref>{{harvtxt|Froude|1910|page=23}}</ref> On 16 November 1553, a parliamentary delegation went to her and formally requested that she choose an English husband,<ref>{{harvtxt|Weikel|1980|page=53}}</ref> the obvious though tacit candidates being her kinsmen [[Edward Courtenay, 1st Earl of Devon|Edward Courtenay]], recently created Earl of Devon, and the Catholic Cardinal Reginald Pole. But Mary's first cousin, [[Emperor Charles V|Charles V]], also king of Spain, saw that an alliance with England would give him supremacy in Europe; he sent his minister to England to propose his only legitimate son, [[Philip II of Spain|Philip]], as a person whom the religious and political interests of the world recommended for Mary.<ref>{{harvtxt|Froude|1910|page=55}}; Loades, pp. 199–201; Porter, pp. 265–267.</ref> The Spanish prince had been widowed a few years before by the death of his first wife, [[Maria Manuela of Portugal]], mother of his son [[Carlos, Prince of Asturias|Carlos]], and was heir apparent to vast territories in Continental Europe and the New World. Both Philip and Mary were descendants of [[John of Gaunt]]. As part of the marriage negotiations, a portrait of Philip by [[Titian]] was sent to Mary in the latter half of 1553.<ref>Porter, p. 310.</ref>

Mary was convinced that the safety of England required her to form a closer relationship with Charles's family, the [[Habsburgs]], and she decided to marry Philip.<ref>{{harvtxt|Heard|2000|pages=46, 48}}</ref> A marriage treaty was presented to the Privy Council on 7 December 1553, and even though the terms clearly favoured England and included several safeguards, many still thought that England would be drawn into Philip's wars and become a mere province of the Habsburg Empire.<ref>{{harvtxt|Heard|2000|pages=48, 49}}</ref> This was of particular concern to the [[landed gentry]] and parliamentary classes, who foresaw having to pay greater taxes to cover the cost of England's participation in foreign wars.<ref>{{harvtxt|Fletcher|1970|page=86}}</ref>

Lord Chancellor Gardiner and the [[English House of Commons]] unsuccessfully petitioned Mary to consider marrying an Englishman, fearing that England would be relegated to a dependency of the Habsburgs.<ref>Porter, pp. 279–284; Waller, p. 72; Whitelock, pp. 202–209.</ref> The marriage was unpopular with the English; Gardiner and his allies opposed it on the basis of patriotism, while Protestants were motivated by a fear that with the restoration of Catholicism and the arrival of the Spanish King, the [[Spanish Inquisition|Inquisition]] would come to judge Protestant heretics.<ref>Waller, p. 73.</ref> Many English people knew the stories of the torments and cruelties suffered by the prisoners of the Inquisition, and there were even those "who had suffered from the rack of the inquisitors" themselves.<ref>Alexander Samson, ''Mary and Philip: The marriage of Tudor England and Habsburg Spain'' (Manchester, 2020), p. 70.</ref>

It was not just the English who were alarmed by the pending marriage of Mary and Philip. France feared an alliance between England and Spain. [[Antoine de Noailles]], the French ambassador to England, "threatened war and began immediate intrigues with any malcontents he could find". Before Christmas in 1553, anti-Spanish ballads and broadsheets were circulating in the streets of London.<ref>{{harvtxt|Loades|1999|pages=190–191}}</ref>

When Mary insisted on marrying Philip, insurrections broke out. [[Thomas Wyatt the Younger]] led a force from [[Kent]] to depose Mary in favour of Elizabeth, as part of a wider conspiracy now known as [[Wyatt's rebellion]], which also involved the Duke of Suffolk, Lady Jane's father.<ref>Porter, pp. 288–299; Whitelock, pp. 212–213.</ref> Mary declared publicly that she would summon Parliament to discuss the marriage and if Parliament decided that the marriage was not to the kingdom's advantage, she would refrain from pursuing it.<ref>Porter, p. 300; Waller, pp. 74–75; Whitelock, p. 216.</ref> On reaching London, Wyatt was defeated and captured. Wyatt, the Duke of Suffolk, Lady Jane, and her husband Guildford Dudley were executed. Courtenay, who was implicated in the plot, was imprisoned and then exiled. Elizabeth, though protesting her innocence in the Wyatt affair, was imprisoned in the Tower of London for two months, then put under house arrest at [[Woodstock Palace]].<ref>Porter, pp. 311–313; Whitelock, pp. 217–225.</ref>

Mary was—excluding the brief, disputed reigns of the [[Empress Matilda]] and Lady Jane Grey—England's first [[queen regnant]]. Further, under the English common law doctrine of ''[[jure uxoris]]'', the property and titles belonging to a woman became her husband's upon marriage, and it was feared that any man she married would thereby become king of England in fact and name.<ref>Waller, pp. 84–85; Whitelock, pp. 202, 227.</ref> While Mary's grandparents [[Ferdinand and Isabella]] had retained sovereignty of their respective realms during their marriage, there was no precedent to follow in England.<ref>Porter, p. 269; Waller, p. 85.</ref> Under the terms of [[Queen Mary's Marriage Act]], Philip was to be styled "King of England", all official documents (including [[Acts of Parliament]]) were to be dated with both their names, and Parliament was to be called under the joint authority of the couple, for Mary's lifetime only. England was not obliged to provide military support to Philip's father in any war, and Philip could not act without his wife's consent or appoint foreigners to office in England.<ref>Porter, pp. 291–292; Waller, p. 85; Whitelock, pp. 226–227.</ref> Philip was unhappy with these conditions but ready to agree for the sake of securing the marriage.<ref>Porter, pp. 308–309; Whitelock, p. 229.</ref> He had no amorous feelings for Mary, but sought the marriage for political and strategic gain; his aide [[Ruy Gómez de Silva]] wrote to a correspondent in [[Brussels]], "the marriage was concluded for no fleshly consideration, but in order to remedy the disorders of this kingdom and to preserve the [[Habsburg Netherlands|Low Countries]]."<ref>Letter of 29 July 1554 in the ''Calendar of State Papers, Spanish'', volume XIII, quoted in Porter, p. 320 and Whitelock, p. 244.</ref> A future child of Mary and Philip would be heir not only to the throne of England but also to the [[Spanish Empire]] in the event that Philip's eldest son, Don Carlos, died without issue.<ref>Alexander Samson, ''Mary and Philip: The marriage of Tudor England and Habsburg Spain'' (Manchester, 2020), pp. 71–73.</ref>

To elevate his son to Mary's rank, Emperor Charles V ceded to Philip the [[Kingdom of Naples|crown of Naples]] as well as his claim to the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]]. Mary thus became [[List of Neapolitan royal consorts|queen of Naples]] and titular [[List of queens of Jerusalem|queen of Jerusalem]] upon marriage.<ref name="waller90">Porter, pp. 321, 324; Waller, p. 90; Whitelock, p. 238.</ref> Their [[Wedding of Mary I of England and Philip of Spain|wedding]] at [[Winchester Cathedral]] on 25 July 1554 took place just two days after their first meeting.<ref>Loades, pp. 224–225; Porter, pp. 318, 321; Waller, pp. 86–87; Whitelock, p. 237.</ref> Philip did not speak English, and so they spoke a mixture of Spanish, French, and Latin.<ref>Porter, p. 319; Waller, pp. 87, 91.</ref>

===False pregnancy===
[[File:Felipe of Spain and MariaTudor.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Interior scene of the royal couple with Mary seated beneath a coat of arms and Philip stood beside her|Mary and Philip, [[Hans Eworth]]]]
In September 1554, Mary stopped menstruating. She gained weight, and felt nauseated in the mornings. Almost the entirety of her court, including her physicians, believed she was pregnant.<ref>Porter, p. 333; Waller, pp. 92–93.</ref> Parliament passed the [[Treason Act of 1554]] making Philip regent in the event of Mary's death in childbirth.<ref>Loades, pp. 234–235.</ref> For the joint [[Chapel Royal]] and [[Capilla flamenca (Spain)|Capilla Flamenca]] choirs singing together in December 1554, Mary commissioned [[Thomas Tallis#Music under Edward VI and Mary I|''Missa Puer natus est nobis'']] from [[Thomas Tallis]]. The festive [[Mass (music)|mass setting]] is based on the plainchant [[Puer natus est nobis|'A Child is born for us']], which alludes to the birth of a baby boy for England.<ref>{{Citation |title=Tallis: Missa Puer natus est nobis & other sacred music |url=https://www.hyperion-records.co.uk/dc.asp?dc=D_CDA68026 |access-date=2025-04-16 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Tallis: The Tallis Christmas Mass |url=https://www.hyperion-records.co.uk/dc.asp?dc=D_CDGIM034&utm_board=gimell&utm_linkurl=tallisscholars.lnk.to/thomas-tallis-missa-puer-natus-est-nobis |access-date=2025-04-16 |language=en}}</ref> Elizabeth was released from house arrest in the last week of April 1555, and was called to court as a witness to the birth, which was expected imminently.<ref>Porter, p. 338; Waller, p. 95; Whitelock, p. 255.</ref> According to Giovanni Michieli, the Venetian ambassador, Philip may have planned to marry Elizabeth if Mary died,<ref>Waller, p. 96.</ref> but in a letter to his brother-in-law [[Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian of Austria]], Philip expressed uncertainty as to whether Mary was pregnant.<ref>"The queen's pregnancy turns out not to have been as certain as we thought": Letter of 25 April 1554, quoted in Porter, p. 337 and Whitelock, p. 257.</ref> Mary's pregnancy had its pros and cons for Elizabeth: if Mary died during childbirth, Elizabeth would become the new queen, but if Mary gave birth to a healthy baby, Elizabeth's chances of becoming queen would recede sharply.<ref>Loades, p. 32.</ref>

Thanksgiving services in the [[diocese of London]] were held at the end of April after false rumours that Mary had given birth to a son spread across Europe.<ref>Waller, p. 95; Whitelock, p. 256.</ref> Through May and June, the apparent delay in delivery fed gossip that Mary was not pregnant.<ref>Whitelock, pp. 257–259.</ref> Susan Clarencieux revealed her doubts to the French ambassador, Antoine de Noailles.<ref>Whitelock, p. 258.</ref> Mary continued to exhibit signs of pregnancy until July 1555, when her abdomen receded. Michieli dismissively ridiculed the pregnancy as more likely to "end in wind rather than anything else".<ref>Waller, p. 97; Whitelock, p. 259.</ref> It was most likely a [[false pregnancy]], perhaps induced by Mary's overwhelming desire to have a child.<ref>Porter, pp. 337–338; Waller, pp. 97–98.</ref> In August, soon after the disgrace of the false pregnancy, Philip left England to command his armies against France in [[Flanders]].<ref>Porter, p. 342.</ref> Mary was heartbroken and fell into a deep depression. Michieli was touched by the Queen's grief; he wrote she was "extraordinarily in love" with her husband and disconsolate at his departure.<ref>Waller, pp. 98–99; Whitelock, p. 268.</ref>

Elizabeth remained at court until October, apparently restored to favour.<ref>Antoine de Noailles quoted in Whitelock, p. 269.</ref> In the absence of any children, Philip was concerned that one of the next claimants to the English throne after his sister-in-law was [[Mary, Queen of Scots]], who was betrothed to [[Francis II of France|Francis, Dauphin of France]]. Philip persuaded his wife that Elizabeth should marry his cousin [[Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy]], to secure the Catholic succession and preserve the Habsburg interest in England, but Elizabeth refused to agree and parliamentary consent was unlikely.<ref>Whitelock, p. 284.</ref>

===Religious policy===
[[File:1555 gold medal Queen Mary I of England.jpg|thumb|right|Gold medal by [[Jacopo da Trezzo]] of "Mary I, Queen of England, France and Ireland, Defender of the Faith", 1555]]
[[File:Mary1 by Eworth 2.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Mary in an ornate dress|Mary by [[Hans Eworth]], 1554. She wears a jewelled pendant bearing the [[Mary Tudor pearl|Tudor pearl]] set beneath two diamonds.]]
In the month following her accession, Mary issued a proclamation that she would not compel any of her subjects to follow her religion, but by the end of September 1553, leading Protestant churchmen—including Thomas Cranmer, [[John Bradford]], [[John Rogers (Bible editor and martyr)|John Rogers]], [[John Hooper (bishop)|John Hooper]], and [[Hugh Latimer]]—were imprisoned.<ref>Tittler, pp. 23–24; Whitelock, p. 187.</ref> Mary's first Parliament, which assembled in early October, declared her parents' marriage valid and [[First Statute of Repeal|abolished Edward's religious laws]].<ref>Loades, pp. 207–208; Waller, p. 65; Whitelock, p. 198.</ref> Church doctrine was restored to the form it had taken in the 1539 [[Six Articles (1539)|Six Articles]] of Henry VIII, which (among other things) reaffirmed clerical celibacy. Married priests were deprived of their [[benefice]]s.<ref>Porter, p. 241; Whitelock, pp. 200–201.</ref>

Mary rejected the break with Rome instituted by her father and the establishment of Protestantism by her brother's regents. Philip persuaded Parliament to [[Second Statute of Repeal|repeal Henry's religious laws]], returning the English church to Roman jurisdiction. Reaching an agreement took many months and Mary and [[Pope Julius III]] had to make a major concession: the [[Dissolution of the Monasteries|confiscated]] monastery lands were not returned to the church but remained in the hands of their influential new owners.<ref>Porter, p. 331.</ref> By the end of 1554, the Pope had approved the deal, and the [[Revival of the Heresy Acts|Heresy Acts were revived]].<ref>Loades, pp. 235–242.</ref>

Around 800 rich Protestants, including [[John Foxe]], fled into [[Marian exiles|exile]].<ref>Waller, p. 113.</ref> Those who stayed and persisted in publicly proclaiming their beliefs became targets of heresy laws.<ref name="Solly">Solly, Meilan. "[https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/myth-bloody-mary-180974221/ The Myth of 'Bloody Mary']". ''Smithsonian Magazine''. 12 March 2020.</ref> The first executions occurred over five days in February 1555: John Rogers on 4 February, [[Laurence Saunders]] on 8 February, and [[Rowland Taylor]] and John Hooper on 9 February.<ref>Whitelock, p. 262.</ref> Thomas Cranmer, the imprisoned archbishop of Canterbury, was forced to watch Bishops [[Nicholas Ridley (martyr)|Ridley]] and Latimer being burned at the stake. He recanted, repudiated Protestant theology, and rejoined the Catholic faith.<ref>Loades, p. 325; Porter, pp. 355–356; Waller, pp. 104–105.</ref> Under the normal process of the law, he should have been absolved as a repentant, but Mary refused to reprieve him. On the day of his burning, he dramatically withdrew his recantation.<ref>Loades, p. 326; Waller, pp. 104–105; Whitelock, p. 274.</ref> In total, 283<!--Ridley and Waller say 283: 227 men and 56 women--> were executed, most by burning.<ref>Duffy, p. 79; Waller, p. 104.</ref> The burnings proved so unpopular that even [[Alfonso de Castro]], one of Philip's own ecclesiastical staff, condemned them<ref>Porter, pp. 358–359; Waller, p. 103; Whitelock, p. 266.</ref> and another adviser, [[Simon Renard]], warned him that such "cruel enforcement" could "cause a revolt".<ref>Waller, p. 102.</ref> Mary persevered with the policy, which continued for the rest of her reign and exacerbated anti-Catholic and anti-Spanish feeling among the English people.<ref>Waller, pp. 101, 103, 105; Whitelock, p. 266.</ref> The victims became lauded as [[List of Protestant martyrs of the English Reformation|martyrs]].<ref>See for example, the [[Oxford Martyrs]].</ref>

Reginald Pole, the son of Mary's executed governess, arrived as papal legate in November 1554.<ref>Loades, p. 238; Waller, p. 94.</ref> He was ordained a priest and appointed Archbishop of Canterbury immediately after Cranmer's execution in March 1556.<ref>Porter, p. 357.</ref>{{Efn|Although he was in deacon's orders and prominent in the church, Pole was not ordained until the day before his consecration as archbishop.<ref>Loades, p. 319.</ref>}}

As long as the Queen remained childless, her half-sister Elizabeth was her successor. Mary, concerned about her sister's Protestant convictions (Elizabeth attended mass only under obligation and had superficially converted to Catholicism only to save her life after being imprisoned following Wyatt's rebellion), seriously considered removing her from the succession and naming as her successor her Scottish first cousin and devout Catholic, [[Margaret Douglas, Countess of Lennox|Margaret Douglas]].<ref>Morgan Ring, ''So High A Blood: The Life of Margaret Countess of Lennox'' (Bloomsbury, 2017), p. 110.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Porter|2007|pp=251-252}}</ref>

===Foreign policy===
[[File:Mary1 by Eworth 3.jpg|thumb|right|Portrait by [[Hans Eworth]] ({{circa|1555–1558}})]]
Furthering the [[Tudor conquest of Ireland]], English colonists were settled in the [[Irish Midlands]] under Mary and Philip's reign. [[County Laois|Queen's]] and [[County Offaly|King's Counties]] (later called Counties Laois and Offaly) were founded, and their [[Plantations of Ireland|plantation]] began.<ref>Tittler, p. 66.</ref> Their principal towns were named, respectively, Maryborough (later called [[Portlaoise]]) and Philipstown (later [[Daingean]]).

In January 1556, Mary's father-in-law the Emperor abdicated. Mary and Philip were still apart; he was declared king of Spain in Brussels, but she stayed in England. Philip negotiated an unsteady truce with the French in February 1556. The next month, the French ambassador in England, Antoine de Noailles, was implicated in a plot against Mary when [[Henry Dudley (conspirator)|Henry Dudley]], a second cousin of the executed Duke of Northumberland, attempted to assemble an invasion force in France. The plot, known as the Dudley conspiracy, was betrayed, and the conspirators in England were rounded up. Dudley remained in exile in France, and Noailles prudently left Britain.<ref>Porter, pp. 381–387.</ref>

Philip returned to England from March to July 1557 to persuade Mary to support Spain in a [[Italian War of 1551–1559|renewed war against France]]. Mary was in favour of declaring war, but her councillors opposed it because French trade would be jeopardised, it contravened the foreign war provisions of the marriage treaty, and a bad economic legacy from Edward VI's reign and a series of poor harvests meant England lacked supplies and finances.<ref>Whitelock, p. 288.</ref> War was only declared in June 1557 after Reginald Pole's nephew [[Thomas Stafford (rebel)|Thomas Stafford]] invaded England and seized [[Scarborough Castle]] with French help, in a failed attempt to depose Mary.<ref>Porter, p. 389; Waller, p. 111; Whitelock, p. 289.</ref> As a result of the war, relations between England and the Papacy became strained, since [[Pope Paul IV]] was allied with Henry II of France.<ref>Whitelock, pp. 293–295.</ref> In August, English forces were victorious in the aftermath of the [[Battle of St. Quentin (1557)|Battle of Saint Quentin]], with one eyewitness reporting, "Both sides fought most choicely, and the English best of all."<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/cal-state-papers/spain/vol13/pp308-318 |pages=308–318 |title=Spain: August 1557 |date=1954 |series=Calendar of State Papers, Spain |volume=13, 1554-1558 |editor-first=Royall |editor-last=Tyler |publisher=London |via=British History Online |access-date=1 December 2021}}</ref> Celebrations were brief, as in January 1558 French forces [[Siege of Calais (1558)|took Calais]], England's sole remaining possession on the European mainland. Although the territory was financially burdensome, its loss was a mortifying blow to the Queen's prestige.<ref>Loades, pp. 295–297; Porter, pp. 392–395; Whitelock, pp. 291–292.</ref> According to ''[[Holinshed's Chronicles]]'', Mary later lamented (although this may be apocryphal), "When I am dead and opened, you shall find 'Calais' lying in my heart".<ref>Porter, p. 393.</ref>

===Commerce and revenue===
[[File:Post Medieval coin, Sixpence of Phillip and Mary (FindID 662681).jpg|thumb|Philip and Mary [[Sixpence (British coin)|sixpence]], 1554]]
[[File:Mary Tudor Shilling.jpg|thumb|Mary [[Shilling (British coin)|shilling]]]]
The weather during the years of Mary's reign was consistently wet. The persistent rain and flooding led to famine.<ref>Porter, pp. 229, 375; Whitelock, p. 277.</ref> Another problem was the decline of the [[Antwerp]] cloth trade.<ref>Tittler, p. 48.</ref> Despite Mary's marriage to Philip, England did not benefit from Spain's enormously lucrative trade with the New World.<ref>Tittler, p. 49.</ref> The Spanish guarded their trade routes jealously, and Mary could not condone English smuggling or piracy against her husband's subjects.<ref>Tittler, pp. 49–50.</ref> In an attempt to increase trade and rescue the English economy, Mary's counsellors continued Northumberland's policy of seeking out new commercial opportunities. She granted a [[royal charter]] to the [[Muscovy Company]] under governor [[Sebastian Cabot (explorer)|Sebastian Cabot]],<ref>Porter, p. 371.</ref> and commissioned a world atlas from [[Diogo Homem]].<ref>Porter, p. 373.</ref> Adventurers such as [[John Lok]] and [[William Towerson (16th-century merchant)|William Towerson]] sailed south in an attempt to develop links with the coast of Africa.<ref>Porter, p. 372.</ref>

Financially, Mary's regime tried to reconcile a modern form of government—with correspondingly higher spending—with a medieval system of collecting taxation and dues.<ref>Porter, p. 375; Tittler, p. 51.</ref> Mary retained the Edwardian appointee [[William Paulet, 1st Marquess of Winchester]], as [[Lord High Treasurer]] and assigned him to oversee the revenue collection system. A failure to apply new tariffs to new forms of imports meant that a key source of revenue was neglected. To solve this, Mary's government published a revised "Book of Rates" (1558), which listed the tariffs and duties for every import. This publication was not extensively reviewed until 1604.<ref>Porter, p. 376.</ref>

English coinage was [[The Great Debasement|debased under both Henry VIII and Edward VI]]. Mary drafted plans for currency reform but they were not implemented until after her death.<ref>Porter, p. 376; Tittler, p. 53.</ref>