Editing Luis Muñoz Marín (section)

==Political career==

===Senator===
By the 1930s, Puerto Rico's political scenario had changed; the only party actively asking for independence was the [[Puerto Rican Nationalist Party]]. That organization's president, [[Pedro Albizu Campos]], occasionally met with Muñoz Marín. He was impressed by the substance of Albizu's arguments, but their styles to achieve autonomy and social reforms were different.<ref name="p.51">Bernier-Grand et al., p. 51</ref>

In 1932, [[Antonio R. Barceló]] abandoned the Coalition, which by this time had weakened, and he worked to establish a new independence movement. Barceló adopted several of Muñoz Marín's ideas of social and economic reforms and autonomy, using them to form the ideology of the [[Liberal Party of Puerto Rico]].<ref name="p.51"/> Muñoz Marín joined the Liberal Party and led ''La Democracia'', which had become the party's official newspaper. He had decided to become a politician to achieve reform.<ref name="p.51"/> In speeches, he discussed ways to provide more land, hospitals, food and schools to the general public.

On March 13, 1932, Muñoz Marín was nominated by the party for the post of senator. Although the party did not win a majority in the 1932 elections, Muñoz Marín received enough votes to gain a position in the [[Puerto Rican Senate]].<ref name="p.52">Bernier-Grand et al., p. 52</ref> Shortly after, Rudy Black, a reporter for ''La Democracia'', arranged a meeting between him and [[Eleanor Roosevelt]]. Wanting her to see Puerto Rico's problems personally, he persuaded her to visit the main island.<ref name="p.53">Bernier-Grand et al., p. 53</ref>

In August 1932, Muñoz Marín received [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] in [[Fort San Felipe del Morro]] and ''[[La Fortaleza]]'' before traveling to ''El Fanguito'', a poor sector that had suffered much damage in the hurricane. When photos of her visit were published, former American governors and the incumbent were outraged to have been overlooked.<ref name="p.54">Bernier-Grand et al., p. 54</ref> Following his wife's report, [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] included Puerto Rico in the [[New Deal]] program. Muñoz Marín became a popular political figure due to his involvement in the program, which provided for considerable investment of federal funds in Puerto Rico to develop infrastructure and housing.<ref name="p.54"/>

Following the government police massacre of Nationalist protesters at the [[University of Puerto Rico]] in [[Río Piedras, Puerto Rico|Río Piedras]] in 1935 (the [[Río Piedras massacre]]) and again at [[Ponce massacre|Ponce]] in 1937, the US Senator [[Millard Tydings]] from Maryland supported a bill in 1936 to give independence to Puerto Rico.<ref name="Gatell"/> (He had co-sponsored the [[Tydings–McDuffie Act]], which provided independence to the [[Philippines]] after a 10-year transition under a limited autonomy.) All the Puerto Rican parties supported the bill, but Muñoz Marín opposed it. Tydings did not gain passage of the bill.<ref name="Gatell">[https://www.jstor.org/stable/2510353 Frank Otto Gatell, "Independence Rejected: Puerto Rico and the Tydings Bill of 1936"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181007112911/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2510353 |date=October 7, 2018 }}, ''Hispanic American Historical Review'', Vol. 38, No. 1 (Feb., 1958), pp. 25–44, accessed 15 December 2012</ref>

Muñoz Marín criticized the bill for what he said would be adverse effects on the island's economy. He compared it to a principle known as ''Ley de Fuga'' (Law of flight). This was the term for a police officer arresting a man, releasing him, and shooting him in the back while the policeman retreated, claiming the suspect had "fled."<ref name="p.55-56">Bernier-Grand et al., pp. 55–56</ref>

As a result of his opposition to the bill and disagreement with Antonio R. Barceló, Muñoz Marín was expelled from the Liberal Party. Muñoz Marín's expulsion severely affected his public image.{{citation needed|date=January 2017}}

He created a group named ''Acción Social Independentista'' (''ASI'') ("Pro-Independence Social Action") which later became the ''[[Clear, Net, Authentic, and Complete Liberal Party|Partido Liberal Neto, Auténtico y Completo]]''. This organization served as opposition to the Liberal Party, which was led by Barceló.<ref name="Foundation 2"/>

Along with many liberal democratic administrators from the New Deal relief organization known as the [[Puerto Rico Reconstruction Administration]] (PRRA), in 1938, Muñoz Marín helped create the [[Popular Democratic Party of Puerto Rico]] (''Partido Popular Democratico'', or PPD).<ref>{{Cite book|title=Puerto Rican Politics and the New Deal|last=Mathews|first=Thomas|publisher=University of Florida Press|year=1960|location=Gainesville|pages=243}}</ref> The party committed to helping the ''jíbaros'', regardless of their political beliefs, by promoting a minimum wage, initiatives to provide food and water, cooperatives to work with agriculture, and the creation of more industrial alternatives.<ref name="p.58">Bernier-Grand et al., p. 58</ref> Muñoz Marín concentrated his political campaigning in the rural areas of Puerto Rico. He attacked the then common practice of paying off rural farm workers to influence their vote, insisting that they "lend" their vote for only one election. The party's first rally attracted solid participation, which surprised the other parties.<ref name="p.60">Bernier-Grand et al., p. 60</ref>

===President of the Senate===
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In 1940, the Popular Democratic Party won a majority in the [[Senate of Puerto Rico]], which was attributed to his campaigning in the rural areas, he first gave a speech in [[Dorado, Puerto Rico]] in the balcony of a house owned by electrician Luis Pérez Álvarez, in 1947. Muñoz Marín was elected as the fourth President of the Senate.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/hispanic_heritage/article-9054292|title=Muñoz Marín, Luis|access-date=October 1, 2007|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]: Guide to Hispanic Heritage|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071101102147/http://www.britannica.com/hispanic_heritage/article-9054292|archive-date=November 1, 2007|url-status=live}}</ref>

During his term as President of the Senate, Muñoz was an advocate of the working class of Puerto Rico.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://chnm.gmu.edu/wwh/modules/lesson16/lesson16.php?s=0|title=Puerto Rican Labor Movement|access-date=October 1, 2007|work=Center for History and New Media, George Mason University|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629062333/http://chnm.gmu.edu/wwh/modules/lesson16/lesson16.php?s=0|archive-date=June 29, 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> Along with Governor [[Rexford Tugwell]], the last non-Puerto Rican US-appointed Governor, and the republican-socialist coalition which headed the House of Representatives, Muñoz helped advance legislation for agricultural reform, economic recovery, and industrialization.<ref name="p.73"/> This program became known as [[Operation Bootstrap]]. It was coupled with a program of agrarian reform (land redistribution) which limited the area to be held by large sugarcane interests. During the first four decades of the 20th century, Puerto Rico's dominant economic commodity had been sugarcane by-products.<ref name="NPR.org 2020">{{cite web | title=Borinquén : Throughline | website=NPR.org | date=2020-07-16 | url=https://www.npr.org/2020/07/15/891442022/borinqu-n | access-date=2020-07-16}}</ref>

Operation Bootstrap encouraged investors to transfer or create manufacturing plants, offering them local and federal tax concessions, while maintaining access to American markets free of import duties. The program facilitated a shift to an industrial economy. During the 1950s, labor-intensive light industries were developed on the island, such as textiles; manufacturing later gave way to heavy industry, such as petrochemicals and oil refining, in the 1960s and 1970s. Taught in Spanish, ''jíbaros'' were trained to work in jobs being promoted by the government.<ref name="p.74">Bernier-Grand et al., p. 74</ref> Muñoz Marín backed legislation to limit the amount of land a company could own. His development programs brought some prosperity for an emergent middle class. A rural agricultural society was transformed into an industrial working class. Muñoz Marín also launched ''Operación Serenidad'' ("Operation Serenity"), a series of projects geared toward promoting education and appreciation of the arts.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.flmm.com/pags_nuevas_folder/biografia_folder/op_serenidad.html|title=Operación Serenidad|access-date=October 2, 2007|work=Fundación Luis Muñoz Marín|language=es|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071016101224/http://flmm.com/pags_nuevas_folder/biografia_folder/op_serenidad.html|archive-date=October 16, 2007|url-status=dead|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

Civil rights groups and the Catholic Church criticized Operation Bootstrap, for what they saw as government-promoted birth control, encouragement of surgical sterilization, and fostering the migration of Puerto Ricans to the United States mainland.<ref name="Women">{{cite web|url=http://chnm.gmu.edu/wwh/modules/lesson16/lesson16.php?s=0|title=Women in World History|publisher=Center for History and New Media, George Mason University|access-date=August 8, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629062333/http://chnm.gmu.edu/wwh/modules/lesson16/lesson16.php?s=0|archive-date=June 29, 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1943 Puerto Rico would pass a [[m:s:mul:Ley de Derechos Civiles de Puerto Rico|Civil Rights Act ]] would ended a great deal of race-related discrimination in Puerto Rico.<ref name=puertoricocivilrights /> In 1945, [[Eric Williams]] would acknowledge the progress in civil rights in Puerto Rico at the time, conceding that despite some issues related to class discrimination, "The Negro enjoys equality with the white man politically as well as legally," and that even opponents of Muñoz Marín "agree that he and his [[Popular Democratic Party (Puerto Rico)|party]] have given Negroes a square deal and opened positions to them, especially in the teaching profession and the higher ranks of the police force, from which they were conventionally debarred."<ref name=puertoricocivilrights>{{cite news|url=https://dh.howard.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=1022&context=hist_fac|title=Race Relations In Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands|first=Eric|last=Williams|date=1945|publisher=Howard University History Department Faculty Publications. 23.|accessdate=May 26, 2024}}</ref>

===World War II===
[[File:David Dubinsky, Governor Munoz, and an unidentified man break ground for the ILGWU - IBEC Santiago Iglesias housing project in Puerto Rico, 1957.jpg|thumb|David Dubinsky, Governor Munoz, and an unidentified man break ground for the ILGWU - IBEC Santiago Iglesias housing project in Puerto Rico, 1957]]
During the early stages of World War II, many thousands of Puerto Ricans were drafted to serve in the [[United States Army]]. This eased problems of overpopulation in the main island. Muñoz Marín promoted the construction of public housing projects to resolve a housing shortage.<ref name="p.76">Bernier-Grand et al., p. 76</ref> During the war he established low-interest scholarships and loans for the residents who were not drafted.  To address health issues, he established free public clinics, which opened throughout Puerto Rico.<ref name="p.76"/> In 1943 Puerto Rico would pass a Civil Rights Act.<ref name=puertoricocivilrights />

In 1944 the Popular Democratic Party won a majority again in the election, repeating the political victory of the previous elections. In 1947, Congress approved legislation allowing Puerto Ricans to elect their own Governor. Muñoz Marín successfully campaigned for the post and was the first democratically elected [[Governor of Puerto Rico]] and the second Puerto Rican to serve in that post.<ref name="Britannica" />

===Passage of Law 53 (the Gag Law)===
[[Image:Jayuya1950.gif|left|200px|thumb|Puerto Rican flag removed by an American soldier]]
In 1948,  the [[Puerto Rican Senate]] passed [[Law 53]], also known as the Gag Law, which would restrain the rights of the independence and Nationalist movements in the island. Marin was instrumental in the passage of this law as he was in control of the Senate at the time.  The passage of the law allowed him to arrest any suspected nationalist without cause or due process and so allowed him to squash any potential question to his authority.<ref>[http://academiajurisprudenciapr.org/en/revistas/volumen-vii/ Dr. Carmelo Delgado Cintrón, "La obra jurídica del Profesor David M. Helfeld (1948–2008)"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120327121629/http://academiajurisprudenciapr.org/en/revistas/volumen-vii/ |date=March 27, 2012 }}, ''Academia Jurisprudencia''</ref>

The ''Ley de la Mordaza'' (a [[Gag order|gag law]]) passed the legislature on May 21, 1948, and was signed into law on June 10, 1948, by the U.S.-appointed governor of Puerto Rico, [[Jesús T. Piñero]]. It closely resembled the anti-communist [[Smith Act]] passed in the United States, and was perceived as an effort to suppress opposition to the PPD and the independence movement.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.topuertorico.org/history5.shtml |title=Puerto Rican History |publisher=Topuertorico.org |date=January 13, 1941 |access-date=November 20, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111201150442/http://www.topuertorico.org/history5.shtml |archive-date=December 1, 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Under this law it became a crime to own or display a [[Flag of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rican flag]] anywhere, even in one's own home. It also became a crime to speak against the [[U.S. government]]; to speak in favor of Puerto Rican independence; to print, [[publish]], sell or exhibit any material intended to paralyze or destroy the insular government; or to organize any society, group or assembly of people with a similar destructive intent. Anyone accused and found guilty of disobeying the law could be sentenced to ten years' [[imprisonment]], a fine of $10,000 (US), or both.<ref>"Jaime Benítez y la autonomía universitaria"; by: Mary Frances Gallart;  Publisher: CreateSpace. {{ISBN|978-1-4611-3699-6}}</ref>

According to Dr. [[Leopoldo Figueroa]], a member of the ''Partido Estadista Puertorriqueño'' (Puerto Rican Statehood Party) and the only non-member of PPD in the Puerto Rican House, the law was repressive and in direct violation of the First Amendment of the [[U.S. Constitution]], which guarantees [[freedom of speech]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.lexjuris.com/lexlex/leyes2006/lexl2006282.htm |title=Ley Núm. 282 del año 2006 |access-date=April 1, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303165415/http://www.lexjuris.com/lexlex/leyes2006/lexl2006282.htm |archive-date=March 3, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> Figueroa pointed out that every Puerto Rican was born with full citizenship, and full U.S. constitutional protections.<ref name="LG">{{Cite web |url=https://issuu.com/jaimepartsch/docs/jes_s_t._pi_ero_y_la_guerra_fria?mode=a_p |title=La Gobernación de Jesús T. Piñero y la Guerra Fría |date=May 31, 2008 |access-date=February 18, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140713132356/http://issuu.com/jaimepartsch/docs/jes_s_t._pi_ero_y_la_guerra_fria?mode=a_p |archive-date=July 13, 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Muñoz Marín used Law 53 to [[arrest]] thousands of Puerto Ricans without [[due process]] – including members of other [[political parties]], and people who did not vote for him.<ref name="Malavet" /><ref name="NBC News 2019">{{cite web | title=Uncovering the roots of fury in Puerto Rico with Julio Ricardo Varela: podcast and transcript | website=NBC News | date=30 July 2019 | url=https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/uncovering-roots-fury-puerto-rico-julio-ricardo-varela-podcast-transcript-ncna1036116 | access-date=25 August 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190825032310/https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/uncovering-roots-fury-puerto-rico-julio-ricardo-varela-podcast-transcript-ncna1036116 | archive-date=August 25, 2019 | url-status=live }}</ref>

===Governor===
Muñoz Marín officially took office on January 2, 1949. He held the post of Governor for sixteen years, being re-elected again in 1952, 1956 and 1960. In 1957, Muñoz Marín was awarded an honorary [[Doctor of Laws]] degree (LL.D.) from [[Bates College]].{{citation needed|date=January 2017}}

Having made progress on illiteracy and other social problems, the party began debating how to establish an autonomous government.<ref name="p.80">Bernier-Grand et al., p. 80</ref> Muñoz Marín and his officials agreed to adopt a "Free Associated State" structure, which had been proposed by Barceló decades before. In Spanish the proposal's name remained unchanged, but in English, it was commonly referred to as a "Commonwealth", to avoid confusion with full statehood.<ref name="p.80"/> The main goal of the proposal was to provide more autonomy to the island, including executive functions similar to those in states, and to pass a constitution.<ref name="p.80"/>

During his terms as governor, a [[Constitutional Convention of Puerto Rico]], was called. Muñoz Marín participated in that and the drafting of the [[Constitution of Puerto Rico]]. It was passed by 82% of the people of Puerto Rico, and approved by the [[United States Congress]] in 1952. Supporters of independence left the PPD and founded the [[Puerto Rican Independence Party]] soon after.<ref name="p.81">Bernier-Grand et al., p. 81</ref>
[[Image:Presidential Medal of Freedom.svg|thumb|right|100px|Awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom with Distinction in 1963]]

The [[Nationalist Party of Puerto Rico]], led by Albizu Campos, also supported full independence and had abandoned the electoral process after low support. On October 30, 1950, a group of Puerto Rican nationalists attacked the governor's mansion and attempted to assassinate Muñoz Marín, by firing shots into his office. Muñoz Marín mobilized the [[Puerto Rican National Guard]] under the command of [[Puerto Rico Adjutant General]] [[Luis R. Esteves]] and sent them to confront the Nationalists in various towns, besides [[San Juan Nationalist revolt|San Juan]], such as [[Jayuya Uprising|Jayuya]] and [[Utuado Uprising|Utuado]]. He ordered the police to arrest many of the Nationalists, including Albizu Campos.<ref name="p.81"/><ref>''El ataque Nacionalista a La Fortaleza;'' by [[Pedro Aponte Vázquez]]; Page 7; Publisher: Publicaciones RENÉ; {{ISBN|978-1-931702-01-0}}</ref> Subsequently, the Muñoz Marín administration used law 53, known as ''Ley de Mordaza'' (lit. "the gag law") to arrest thousands of Puerto Ricans without due process, including pro-independence supporters who were not involved in the uprisings.<ref name="Malavet" />

The inauguration acts for the establishment of the ''Estado Libre Associado'' took place on July 25, 1952. Security for the event was tightened to avoid any incident, and invitations were issued.<ref name="p.82">Bernier-Grand et al., p.82</ref> Muñoz Marín feared that the new status could affect the Puerto Rican culture or "[[Americanization|Americanize]]" the island's [[Puerto Rican Spanish|language]].<ref name="p.83">Bernier-Grand et al., p. 83</ref> The government began promoting cultural activities, founding the [[Pablo Casals]] Festival, Music Conservatory, and Puerto Rico's Institute of Culture.<ref name="p.83"/>

During the decade of the 1950s, most ''jíbaros'' pursued work in factories instead of agriculture, to avoid the losses from frequent hurricanes. Many people migrated to [[New York City]] during this period for its good industrial jobs. Muñoz Marín said that he "did not agree with" the "continuing situation", and that the "battle for good life, should not have all its emphasis placed on industrialization. Part of it must be placed on agriculture."<ref name="p.83"/> American critics felt that he encouraged the migration to reduce overpopulation.<ref name="p.83"/> Despite efforts to provide more work in agriculture on the islands, the migration continued.<ref name="p.83"/>

In 1952, three United States senators referred to Muñoz Marin as a dictator when he would not approve "New Industry" tax exemptions for housing construction projects. Muñoz Marin said housing was not a new industry in Puerto Rico and the senators, [[Olin D. Johnston]], [[Owen Brewster]], and [[John Marshall Butler]] responded in kind by calling him a dictator on the floor of the US Senate.<ref name="dictator charges">{{cite news |last1=Edson |first1=Peter |title=Several Motives Are Behind Charges Against Muñoz-Marin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WAIaAAAAIBAJ&q=Puerto+Rico&pg=PA2 |access-date=18 October 2019 |agency=The Times - News |date=28 February 1952}}</ref>

On December 6, 1962, Muñoz Marín was awarded the [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]] by US President [[John F. Kennedy]]. By 1964, Muñoz Marín had been governor for sixteen years. A group of younger members of the Popular Democratic Party felt that he should retire.<ref name="p.85">Bernier-Grand et al., p. 85</ref> They suggested that he resign, and presented a proposal for term limits&nbsp;— two terms for elected officials.<ref name="p.85"/> The group named themselves ''Los veinte y dos'' ("The twenty-twos") and began running a campaign, calling on civilians for support.{{citation needed|date=January 2017}}

Victoria, Muñoz Marín's youngest daughter joined the group, which he didn't oppose.<ref name="p.86">Bernier-Grand et al., p. 86</ref> The day before the party had an assembly to elect its candidates, Muñoz Marín announced his decision not to run for another term. He recommended [[Roberto Sánchez Vilella]], his [[Secretary of State of Puerto Rico|Secretary of State]], for the party's candidacy. When the crowd called for "four more years", Muñoz Marín said, "I am not your strength ... You are your own strength."<ref name="p.86"/> Sánchez Vilella was elected as governor.{{citation needed|date=January 2017}}