Editing Luís de Camões (section)

==Work==
===Context===
Camões lived in the final phase of the European [[Renaissance]], a period marked by many changes in culture and society, which mark the end of the [[Middle Ages]] and the beginning of the [[Early modern period|Modern Age]] and the transition from [[feudalism]] to [[capitalism]]. It was called "renaissance" due to the rediscovery and revaluation of the cultural references of [[Classical Antiquity]], which guided the changes of this period towards a [[humanist]] and [[naturalist]] ideal that affirmed the dignity of man, placing him at the center of the universe, making him the researcher par excellence of nature, and promoting reason and science as arbitrators of manifest life.<ref>{{cite web |title=Renascimento |url=http://enciclopedia.itaucultural.org.br/ |publisher=Enciclopédia Itaú}}</ref><ref name="Renaissance">{{cite web |title=Renaissance |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Renaissance |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=24 February 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=History of Europe |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Europe#toc=toc58315 |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=24 February 2021 |language=en}}</ref> During this period, several scientific instruments were invented and several natural laws and physical entities previously unknown were discovered; the knowledge of the face of the planet itself changed after the discoveries of the [[Age of Discovery|great navigations]]. The spirit of intellectual speculation and scientific research was on the rise, causing Physics, Mathematics, Medicine, Astronomy, Philosophy, Engineering, Philology and several other branches of knowledge to reach a level of complexity, efficiency and accuracy unprecedented, which led to an optimistic conception of human history as a continuous expansion and always for the better.<ref name="Renaissance" /><ref>{{cite web |last1=Weisinger |first1=Herbert |title=Renaissance Literature and Historiography |url=https://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhiana.cgi?id=dv4-21 |publisher=Dictionary of the History of Ideas |access-date=2021-02-24 |archive-date=2011-06-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628232830/http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhiana.cgi?id=dv4-21 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In a way, the Renaissance was an original and eclectic attempt to harmonize pagan Neoplatonism with the Christian religion, eros with charitas, together with oriental, Jewish and Arab influences, and where the study of magic, astrology and the occult was not absent.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nunes |first1=Benedito |title=Franco, Afonso Arinos de Melo et alii. O Renascimento: Diretrizes da Filosofia no Renascimento |date=1978 |publisher=Agir / MNBA |pages=64–77}}</ref> It was also the time when strong national states began to be created, commerce and cities expanded and the bourgeoisie became a force of great social and economic importance, contrasting with the relative decline in the influence of religion in world affairs.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Minchillo |title=Sonetos de Camões |year=1998 |publisher=Atelie Editorial |isbn=978-85-85851-62-0 |pages=12–13 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EqsX-ImEtXgC&q=cam%C3%B5es |language=pt-BR}}</ref>

In the 16th century, the time in which Camões lived, the influence of the Italian Renaissance expanded throughout Europe. However, several of its most typical features were declining, in particular because of a series of political disputes and wars that altered the European political map, with Italy losing its place as a power, and the split of Catholicism, with the emergence of the [[Protestant Reformation]]. In the Catholic reaction, [[Counter-Reformation]] was launched, the [[Inquisition]] was reactivated and ecclesiastical censorship was rekindled. At the same time, [[Machiavelli]]'s doctrines became widespread, dissociating ethics from the practice of power. The result was the reaffirmation of the power of religion over the profane world and the formation of an agitated spiritual, political, social and intellectual atmosphere, with strong doses of pessimism, reverberating unfavorably on the former freedom that artists enjoyed. Despite this, the intellectual and artistic acquisitions of the High Renaissance that were still fresh and shining before the eyes could not be forgotten immediately, even if their philosophical substrate could no longer remain valid in the face of new political, religious and social facts. The new art that was made, although inspired by the source of classicism, translated it into restless, anxious, distorted, ambivalent forms, attached to intellectualist preciosities, characteristics that reflected the dilemmas of the century and define the general style of this phase as [[mannerist]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hauser |first1=Arnold |title=História Social da Literatura e da Arte, Vol. I. Mestre Jou |date=1972–1982 |pages=357–384}}</ref><ref name="Lino">{{cite web |last1=Machado |first1=Lino |title=Maneirismo em Camões: Uma Linguagem de Crise |url=http://74.125.155.132/scholar?q=cache:y5igEvEZD0YJ:scholar.google.com/+camoes+lusiadas |publisher=Revista Eletrônica de Estudos Literários }}{{Dead link|date=June 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

Since the middle of the 15th century, Portugal had established itself as a great naval and commercial power, its arts were developing and enthusiasm for maritime conquests was boiling. The reign of [[John II of Portugal|D. João II]] was marked by the formation of a feeling of national pride, and in the time of [[Manuel I of Portugal|D. Manuel I]], as Spina & Bechara say, pride had given way to delirium, to the pure euphoria of world domination. At the beginning of the 16th century, [[Garcia de Resende]] lamented that there was no one who could celebrate so many feats worthily, claiming that there was epic material superior to that of the Romans and Trojans. Filling this gap, [[João de Barros]] wrote his cavalry novel, "''A Crónica do Imperador Clarimundo''" (1520), in epic format. Shortly thereafter, [[António Ferreira (poet)|António Ferreira]] appeared, establishing himself as a mentor of the classicist generation and challenging his contemporaries to sing the glories of Portugal in high style. When Camões appeared, the land was prepared for the apotheosis of the homeland, a homeland that had fought hard to conquer its sovereignty, first of the Moors and after Castile, had developed an adventurous spirit that had taken it across the oceans, expanding the known borders of the world and opening new routes of trade and exploration, defeating enemy armies and the hostile forces of nature.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Spina & Bechara |title=Os Lusíadas – Antologia |publisher=Atelie Editorial |isbn=978-85-85851-54-5 |pages=13–14 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I_T9Fqq5A7cC&q=%22camoes%22+lusiadas&pg=PA7 |language=pt-BR}}</ref> But at this point, however, the political and cultural crisis was already being announced, materializing shortly after his death, when the country lost its sovereignty to Spain.<ref name="Soares">{{cite book |last1=Soares |first1=Maria Luísa de Castro |title=Profetismo e espiritualidade de Camões a Pascoaes |date=2007 |publisher=Imprensa da Universidade de Coimbra / Coimbra University Press |isbn=978-972-8704-72-8 |pages=129–139 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HZpA3_YCiWEC&q=camoes+maneirismo&pg=PA132 |language=pt}}</ref>

===Overview===
[[File:Pauwels - Camões.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Andries Pauwels: Bust of Camões, 17th century]]
Camões' production is divided into three genres: lyrical, epic and theatrical. His lyrical work was immediately appreciated as a high achievement. He demonstrated his virtuosity especially in [[canto]]s and elegies, but his ''redondilhas'' are not far behind. In fact, he was a master in this form, giving new life to the art of [[Gloss (annotation)|gloss]], instilling in it spontaneity and simplicity, a delicate irony and a lively phrasing, taking courtesan poetry to its highest level, and showing that he also knew how to express perfectly joy and relaxation. His epic production is synthesized in '[[Os Lusíadas]]', an intense glorification of Portuguese feats, not only of his military victories, but also the conquest over elements and physical space, with recurring use of classic allegories. The idea of a national epic had existed in the Portuguese heart since the 15th century, when the navigations started, but it was up to Camões, in the following century, to materialize it. In his dramatic works he sought to fuse nationalist and classic elements.<ref name="Encyclopædia" />

Probably if he had remained in Portugal, as a courtly poet, he would never have achieved the mastery of his art. The experiences he accumulated as a soldier and navigator enriched his worldview and excited his talent. Through them, he managed to free himself from the formal limitations of courtesan poetry and the difficulties he went through, the profound anguish of exile, the longing for his country, indelibly impregnated his spirit and communicated with his work, and from there influenced in a marked way subsequent generations of Portuguese writers. His best poems shine exactly for what is genuine in the suffering expressed and the honesty of that expression, and this is one of the main reasons that put his poetry at such a high level.<ref name="Encyclopædia" />

Its sources were numerous. He dominated [[Latin]] and [[Spanish language|Spanish]], and demonstrated a solid knowledge of [[Greco-Roman mythology]], ancient and modern European history, Portuguese chroniclers and [[classical literature]], with authors such as [[Ovid]], [[Xenophon]], [[Lucan]], [[Gaius Valerius Flaccus (poet)|Valerius Flaccus]], [[Horace]] standing out, but especially [[Homer]] and [[Virgil]], from whom he borrowed various structural and stylistic elements and sometimes even passages in almost literal transcription. According to his quotations, he also seems to have had a good knowledge of works by [[Ptolemy]], [[Diogenes Laërtius]], [[Pliny the Elder]], [[Strabo]] and [[Pomponius Mela]], among other historians and ancient scientists. Among the moderns, he was aware of the Italian production of [[Francesco Petrarca]], [[Ludovico Ariosto]], [[Torquato Tasso]], [[Giovanni Boccaccio]] and [[Jacopo Sannazaro]], and of Castilian literature.<ref name="Pimpão">{{cite book |last1=Pimpão |first1=Álvaro Júlio da Costa |title=Camões, Luís Vaz de. Os Lusíadas: Prefácio |date=2000 |publisher=[[Instituto Camões]] |url=http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/bdc/literatura/lusiadas/ |access-date=2021-02-24 |archive-date=2021-04-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210424152549/http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/bdc/literatura/lusiadas/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Spina & Bechara |title=Os Lusíadas – Antologia |publisher=Atelie Editorial |isbn=978-85-85851-54-5 |page=18 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I_T9Fqq5A7cC&q=gama+%22Ana+de+S%C3%A1+Macedo%22&pg=PA7 |language=pt-BR}}</ref>

For those who consider the Renaissance to be a homogeneous historical period, informed by classical ideals and extending to the end of the 16th century, Camões is quite simply a Renaissance poet, but in general it is recognized that the 16th century was largely dominated by a stylistic derivation called [[Mannerism]], which at various points is an anti-classical school and in many ways prefigures the [[Baroque]]. Thus, for many authors, it is more appropriate to describe the Camonian style as mannerist, distinguishing it from typical Renaissance classicism. This is justified by the presence of several language resources and an approach to its themes that are not in agreement with the doctrines of balance, economy, tranquility, harmony, unity and invariable idealism, which are the fundamental axes of Renaissance classicism. Camões, after a typically classic initial phase, moved on to other paths and anxiety and drama became his companions. Throughout The Lusiads the signs of a political and spiritual crisis are visible, the prospect of the decline of the empire and the character of the Portuguese remains in the air, censored by bad customs and the lack of appreciation for the arts, alternating with excerpts in which its enthusiastic apology. They are also typical of Mannerism, and would become even more Baroque, the taste for contrast, for emotional flare, for conflict, for paradox, for religious propaganda, for the use of complex figures of speech and preciousness, even for the grotesque and monstrous, many of them common features in Camonian work.<ref name="Lino" /><ref name="Soares" /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Moisés |first1=Massaud |title=A literatura portuguesa através dos textos |date=2000 |publisher=Editora Cultrix |isbn=978-85-316-0232-0 |page=192 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GnADW82tdmYC&q=camoes+maneirismo&pg=PA192 |language=pt-BR}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Teixeira |title=Zé Ferino |year=1999 |publisher=Atelie Editorial |isbn=978-85-85851-90-3 |page=298 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RffKKJPYttgC&q=camoes+maneirismo&pg=PA298 |language=pt-BR}}</ref>

The mannerist nature of his work is also marked by the ambiguities generated by the rupture with the past and by the concomitant adherence to it, the first manifested in the visualization of a new era and in the use of new poetic formulas from Italy, and the second, in the use of archaisms typical of the Middle Ages. Along with the use of formal Renaissance and classicist models, he cultivated the medieval genres of [[vilancete]], [[cantiga]] and [[Galician-Portuguese lyric|trova]]. For Joaquim dos Santos, the contradictory character of his poetry is found in the contrast between two opposing premises: idealism and practical experience. He combined typical values of humanist rationalism with other derivatives of [[cavalry]], [[crusades]] and [[feudalism]], aligned the constant propaganda of the Catholic faith with ancient mythology, responsible in the aesthetic plan for all the action that materializes the final realization, discarding the mediocre aurea dear to classics to advocate the primacy of the exercise of weapons and the glorious conquest.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Santos |first1=Joaquim José Moreira dos |title=O Medievalismo em Camões. Os Doze de Inglaterra |date=1985 |publisher=UC Biblioteca Geral 1 |pages=209–211 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_3fzsGRA84oC&q=%22camoes%22&pg=PA209 |language=pt-BR}}</ref>

===Os Lusíadas===
{{Main|Os Lusíadas}}
[[File:Os Lusíadas.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Cover of the 1572 edition of Os Lusíadas]]
Os Lusíadas, or The Lusiads is considered the Portuguese epic par excellence. The title itself already suggests its nationalist intentions, being derived from the ancient Roman denomination of Portugal, [[Lusitania]]. It is one of the most important epics of the modern age due to its greatness and universality. The epic tells the story of [[Vasco da Gama]] and the Portuguese heroes who sailed around the [[Cape of Good Hope]] and opened a [[Portuguese discovery of the sea route to India|new route to India]]. It is a humanist epic, even in its contradictions, in the association of pagan mythology with the Christian view, in the opposite feelings about war and empire, in the taste of rest and in the desire for adventure, in the appreciation of sensual pleasure and in the demands of an ethical life, in the perception of greatness and in the presentiment of decline, in the heroism paid for with suffering and struggle.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pires |first1=António Machado |title=Os Lusíadas de Camões e a Mensagem de Fernando Pessoa |date=1985 |publisher=UC Biblioteca Geral 1 |pages=419–422 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x3PoA8j6wT0C&q=%22camoes%22+lusiadas&pg=PP10 |language=pt-BR}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=White |first1=Landeg |title="Introduction". In: Camoes, Luis Vaz de. The Lusíads |date=2002 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-280151-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wba1CdOTRgQC&q=%22camoes%22+lusiadas&pg=PR9 |language=en}}</ref> The poem opens with the famous verses:

{{Verse translation|
{{lang|pt|"As armas e os barões assinalados
Que, da Ocidental praia Lusitana,
Por mares nunca de antes navegados
Passaram ainda além da [[Sri Lanka|Taprobana]],
Em perigos e guerras esforçados,
Mais do que prometia a força humana,
E entre gente remota edificaram
Novo Reino, que tanto sublimaram;
.....
Cantando espalharei por toda a parte,
Se a tanto me ajudar o engenho e arte."}}
|attr1=Camões: ''[[Os Lusíadas]]'', Canto I|
"The feats of Arms, and famed heroick Host,⁠
⁠from occidental Lusitanian strand,
⁠who o'er the waters ne'er by seaman crost,
⁠farèd beyond the [[Sri Lanka|Taprobáne-land]],
⁠forceful in perils and in battle-post,
⁠with more than promised force of mortal hand;
and in the regions of a distant race
rear'd a new throne so haught in Pride of Place.
.....
My song would sound o'er Earth's extremest part
were mine the genius, mine the Poet's art."
|attr2=Translated by [[Sir Richard Francis Burton]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Burton |first1=Richard F. |title=The Lusiads |date=1880 |publisher=Burtoniana |page=35 |url=https://burtoniana.org/books/1880-Os%20lusiadas/Os%20lusiadas%20Vol%201.pdf |access-date=24 February 2021}}</ref>
}}

The ten [[canto]]s of the poem add up to 1,102 [[stanzas]] in a total of 8,816 decyllable verses, using the [[ottava rima]] (abababcc).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Júnior |first1=Benjamin Abdala |title=Literaturas de língua portuguesa: marcos e marcas. Portugal |date=2007 |publisher=Arte & Ciência |isbn=978-85-7473-336-4 |page=79 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MbosJ8IeUcUC&pg=PA79 |language=pt-BR}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=de Carvalho |first1=C. |title=Camões e as fórmulas lapidares em Os Lusíadas |url=http://www.institutodeletras.uerj.br/idioma/numeros/24/Idioma24_a03.pdf |pages=39–46 |publisher=Revista Idioma |access-date=24 February 2021 |archive-date=7 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210507133846/http://www.institutodeletras.uerj.br/idioma/numeros/24/Idioma24_a03.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> After an introduction, an invocation and a dedication to King Sebastian, the action begins, which merges myths and historical facts. Vasco da Gama, sailing along the coast of Africa, is observed by the assembly of classical gods, who discuss the fate of the expedition, which is protected by [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]] and attacked by [[Bacchus]]. Resting for a few days in [[Malindi]], at the request of the local king Vasco da Gama narrates all Portuguese history, from its origins to the journey they undertake. The cantos III, IV and V contain some of the best passages of the entire epic: the episode of [[Inês de Castro]], which becomes a symbol of love and death, the [[Battle of Aljubarrota]], the vision of [[Manuel I of Portugal|D. Manuel I]], the description of [[St. Elmo's fire]], the story of the giant [[Adamastor]]. Back on the ship, the poet takes advantage of his free time to tell the story of [[the Twelve of England]], while Bacchus summons the sea gods to destroy the Portuguese fleet. Venus intervenes and ships reach [[Calicut]], India. There, [[Paulo da Gama]] receives the king's representatives and explains the meaning of the banners that adorn the flagship. On the return trip the sailors enjoy the island created for them by Venus, rewarding the nymphs with their favors. One of them sings the glorious future of Portugal and the scene ends with a description of the universe by [[Tethys (mythology)|Tethys]] and Vasco da Gama. Then the journey continues home.<ref name="Encyclopædia" />

[[File:Lusíadas - descrição do mundo.jpg|thumb|220px|Tethys describes the World Machine to Gama, illustration from the 1639 edition of Faria e Sousa]]
In Os Lusíadas, Camões achieves a remarkable harmony between classical scholarship and practical experience, developed with consummate technical skill, describing Portuguese adventures with moments of serious thought mixed with others of delicate sensitivity and humanism. The great descriptions of the battles, the manifestation of the natural forces, the sensual encounters, transcend the allegory and the classicist allusion that permeate all the work and present themselves as a fluent speech and always of a high aesthetic level, not only for its narrative character especially well achieved, but also by the superior mastery of all the resources of the language and the art of versification, with a knowledge of a wide range of styles, used in efficient combination. The work is also a serious warning for Christian kings to abandon small rivalries and unite against Muslim expansion.<ref name="Encyclopædia" />

The structure of the work is in itself worthy of interest, as, according to [[Jorge de Sena]], nothing is arbitrary in Os Lusíadas. Among the arguments he presented was the use of the golden section, a defined relationship between the parts and the whole, organizing the set in ideal proportions that emphasize especially significant passages. Sena demonstrated that when applying the golden section to the whole work, it falls precisely on the verse that describes the arrival of the Portuguese in India. Applying the separate section to the two resulting parts, in the first part comes the episode that reports the death of Inês de Castro and, in the second, the stanza that narrates [[Cupid]]'s efforts to unite the Portuguese and the nymphs, which for Sena reinforces the importance of love throughout the composition.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lamas |first1=Maria Paula |title=Recursos Narrativos n'Os Lusíadas |date=July 2004 |publisher=Simpósio Internacional de Narratologia. Buenos Aires |url=http://www.filologia.org.br/revista/34/13.htm |access-date=2021-02-24 |archive-date=2010-02-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100221200059/http://www.filologia.org.br/revista/34/13.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> Two other elements give Os Lusíadas its modernity and distance it from classicism: the introduction of doubt, contradiction and questioning, in disagreement with the affirmative certainty that characterizes the classic epic, and the primacy of [[rhetoric]] over action, replacing the world of facts with that of words, which do not fully recover reality and evolve into [[metalanguage]], with the same disruptive effect on the traditional epic.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pereira |first1=Terezinha Maria Scher |title="História e Linguagem em Os Lusíadas". |journal= Via Atlântica — Estudos Comparados de Literaturas de Língua Portuguesa |date=2000 |volume=1 |issue=4 |pages=196–211 |doi=10.11606/va.v0i4.49613|doi-access=free }}</ref>

According to Costa Pimpão, there is no evidence that Camões intended to write his epic before he traveled to India, although heroic themes were already present in his previous production. It is possible that he drew some inspiration from fragments of the ''Decades of Asia'', by [[João de Barros]], and the ''History of the Discovery and Conquest of India by the Portuguese'', by [[Fernão Lopes de Castanheda]]. He was certainly well-informed on classical mythology before that, as well as on ancient epic literature. Apparently, the poem started to take shape as early as 1554, with Storck considering that his determination to write it was born during the sea voyage itself. He was seen working on it in Mozambique by his friend historian [[Diogo do Couto]] between 1568 and 1569.<ref name="Pimpão" />

The success of the publication of Os Lusíadas supposedly required a second edition in the same year as the ''[[princeps]]'' edition. The two differ in countless details and it was debated at length which one would in fact be the original. Nor is it clear to whom the amendments to the second text are due. Currently, the edition that shows the publisher's brand, a [[pelican]], with its neck turned to the left, which is called edition A, carried out under the supervision of the author, is recognized as original. However, edition B was for a long time taken as ''princeps'', with disastrous consequences for the later critical analysis of the work. Apparently, edition B was produced later, around 1584 or 1585, in a clandestine manner, taking the fictitious date of 1572 to bypass the delays of censorship of the time if it were published as a new edition and to correct the serious defects of another 1584 edition, the so-called ''piscos'' edition.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Pimpão |url=http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/bdc/literatura/lusiadas/ |pages=xx-xxv |title=Archived copy |access-date=2021-02-24 |archive-date=2021-04-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210424152549/http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/bdc/literatura/lusiadas/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> However, Maria Helena Paiva raised the hypothesis that editions A and B are only variants of the same edition, which was corrected after the typographic composition, but while printing was already in progress. According to the researcher, "the need to make the most of the press led to the conclusion that, after printing a shape, which consisted of several folios, a first test was taken, which was corrected while the press continued, now with the corrected text. There were, therefore, uncorrected printed folios and corrected printed folios, which were grouped indistinctly in the same copy", so that there were no two copies exactly the same in the press system of that time.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Paiva |first1=Maria Helena |title=Os Lusíadas nas encruzilhadas do tempo. In: Colóquio "O Fascínio da Linguagem" em homenagem a Fernanda Irene Fonseca |date=23–25 May 2007 |publisher=[[Porto University]] |pages=316–317 |url=https://repositorio-aberto.up.pt/handle/10216/13886}}</ref>

===''Rimas''===
[[File:Camões - Rimas 1595.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Cover of the first edition of ''Rimas'', 1595]]
Camões' lyric work, dispersed in manuscripts,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Azevedo |first1=Maria Antonieta Soares de |title="Um Manuscrito Quinhentista de Os Lusíadas". In: Colóquio de Letras |date=1980 |pages=(55):14 |url=http://coloquio.gulbenkian.pt/bib/sirius.exe/issueContentDisplay?n=55&p=14&o=p |access-date=2021-02-25 |archive-date=2021-04-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422023529/http://coloquio.gulbenkian.pt/bib/sirius.exe/issueContentDisplay?n=55&p=14&o=p |url-status=dead }}</ref> was collected and published posthumously in 1595 under the title ''[[Rimas]]'' (''Rhymes''). Throughout the 17th century, the growing prestige of his epic contributed to raise the appreciation for these other poems even more. The collection includes ''redondilhas'', [[ode]]s, [[Gloss (annotation)|glosses]], [[cantiga]]s, twists or variations, ''sextilhas'', [[sonnet]]s, [[elegies]], [[eclogue]]s and other small stanzas. His lyrical poetry comes from several different sources: the sonnets generally follow the Italian style derived from [[Petrarch]], the songs took the model of Petrarch and [[Pietro Bembo]]. In the odes, the influence of the [[troubadour]] poetry of chivalry and classical poetry is verified, but with a more refined style; in the ''sextilhas'' the Provençal influence is clear; in the redondilhas it expanded the form, deepened the lyricism and introduced a theme, worked on antitheses and paradoxes, unknown in the old tradition of [[Cantigas de amigo]], and the elegies are quite classicist. Its resorts follow an epistolary style, with moralizing themes. Eclogues are perfect pieces of the pastoral genre, derived from Virgil and the Italians.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mourão e Vasconcelos |title=Os Lusiadas: nova edicao segundo a do Morgado Matteus, com as notas e vida do autor pelo mesmo, corrigida segunda as edicoes de Hamburgo e de Lisboa, e enrequecida de novas notas e d'uma prefaçao pel C.L. de Moura |year=1847 |publisher=Didot |isbn=|pages=72–81 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dqg4AAAAYAAJ&q=%22camoes%22+lusiadas&pg=PA1 |language=pt-BR}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Moisés |first1=Massaud |title=A literatura portuguesa |date=1997 |publisher=Editora Cultrix |isbn=978-85-316-0231-3 |pages=54–55 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xcQYSXj0xN0C&q=%22el+rei+seleuco%22&pg=PA54 |language=pt-BR}}</ref><ref name="Bergel">{{cite web |last1=Bergel |first1=Antonio J. Alías |title=Camões laureado: Legitimación y uso poético de Camões durante el bilingüismo ibérico en el "período filipino" |url=https://webs.ucm.es/info/especulo/numero42/camoensl.html |publisher=Espéculo — Revista de estudios literarios |access-date=24 February 2021 |archive-date=23 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210123181442/https://webs.ucm.es/info/especulo/numero42/camoensl.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> The influence of Spanish poetry by [[Garcilaso de la Vega (poet)|Garcilaso de la Vega]], [[Jorge de Montemor]], [[Juan Boscán Almogáver|Juan Boscán]], [[Gregorio Silvestre]] and several other names was also detected in many points of his lyric, as his commentator Faria e Sousa pointed out.<ref>{{cite web |title=Luís de Camões e Ausias March |url=http://74.125.155.132/scholar?q=cache:52R2HKqj7aMJ:scholar.google.com/+camoes+castelhano |page=178 |publisher=Península — Revista de Estudos Ibéricos (2003) }}{{Dead link|date=June 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

Despite the care of the first editor of ''Rimas'', Fernão Rodrigues Lobo Soropita, in the 1595 edition, several apocryphal poems were included. Many poems were discovered over the next few centuries and attributed to him, but not always with careful critical analysis. The result was that, for example, while in the original Rhymes there were 65 sonnets, in the 1861 edition of Juromenha there were 352; in the 1953 edition of Aguiar e Silva 166 pieces were still listed.<ref name="Encyclopædia" /><ref name="Aguiar">{{cite book |last1=Aguiar e Silva |title=Rimas |year=1953 |publisher=UC Biblioteca Geral 1 |pages=V-XIV |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5E6KJh5Svj8C&q=camoes |language=pt-BR}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Juromenha |first1=Visconde de |title=Obras de Luiz de Camões: precedidas de um ensaio biographico no qual se relatam alguns factos não conhecidos da sua vida, augmentadas com algumas composições ineditas do poeta, pelo visconde de Juromenha |date=1861 |publisher=Imprensa nacional |page=177 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HVHPs5lzDiYC&q=%22camoes%22&pg=PA1 |language=pt-BR}}</ref> In addition, many editions modernized or "embellished" the original text, a practice that was particularly pronounced after the 1685 edition of Faria e Sousa, giving rise to and rooting a tradition of its own in this adulterated lesson that caused enormous difficulties for critical study. More scientific studies only began to be undertaken at the end of the 19th century, with the contribution of [[Wilhelm Storck]] and [[Carolina Michaëlis de Vasconcelos]], who discarded several apocryphal compositions. At the beginning of the 20th century, work continued with José Maria Rodrigues and Afonso Lopes Vieira, who published Rimas in 1932 in an edition they called "crítica" ("criticism"), although it did not deserve the name: it adopted large parts of Faria and Sousa's lesson, but editors claimed to have used the original editions, from 1595 and 1598. On the other hand, they definitely raised the issue of textual fraud that had been perpetuating for a long time and had tampered with the poems to the point of becoming unrecognizable.<ref name="Aguiar" /> One example is enough:

*1595 edition: "''Aqui, ó Ninfas minhas, vos pintei / Todo de amores um jardim suave; / Das aves, pedras, águas vos contei, / Sem me ficar bonina, fera ou ave.''"
*1685 edition: "''Aqui, fremosas ninfas, vos pintei / Todo de amores um jardim suave; / De águas, de pedras, de árvores contei, / De flores, de almas, feras, de uma, outra ave.''"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Aguiar e Silva |title=Rimas |year=1953 |publisher=UC Biblioteca Geral 1 |page=IX |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5E6KJh5Svj8C&q=camoes |language=pt-BR}}</ref>

It seems impossible to reach a definitive result in this purge. However, enough authentic material survives to guarantee his position as the best Portuguese lyricist and the greatest Renaissance poet in Portugal.<ref name="Encyclopædia" />
[[File:Camoes - comedia de filodemo.jpg|thumb|220px|Cover of the 1615 edition of ''Filodemo'']]

===Comedies===
The general content of his works for the stage combines, in the same way as in Os Lusíadas, nationalism and classic inspiration. His production in this field is limited to three works, all in the genre of comedy and in the format of self: ''El-Rei Seleuco'', ''Filodemo'' and ''[[Anfitriões]]''. The attribution of ''El-Rei Seleuco'' to Camões, however, is controversial. Its existence was not known until 1654, when it appeared published in the first part of Rimas in the Craesbeeck edition, which gave no details about its origin and had little care in editing the text. The play also differs in several aspects from the other two that survived, such as its much shorter length (an act), the existence of a prologue in [[prose]], and the less profound and less erudite treatment of the love theme. The theme, of the complicated passion of [[Antiochus I Soter|Antiochus]], son of King [[Seleucus I Nicator]], for his stepmother, Queen Estratonice, was taken from a historical fact from Antiquity transmitted by [[Plutarch]] and repeated by [[Petrarch]] and the Spanish popular songwriter, working it in the style by [[Gil Vicente]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Anastácio |first1=Vanda |title="El Rei Seleuco, 1645: Reflexões sobre o "corpus" da obra de Camões" In: Península — Revista de Estudos Ibéricos |date=2005 |pages=327–342 |url=http://74.125.155.132/scholar?q=cache:kvH0sjLH5fgJ:scholar.google.com/+camoes+comedia }}{{Dead link|date=June 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Alves |first1=José Édil de Lima |title=História Da Literatura Portuguesa |date=2001 |publisher=Editora da ULBRA |isbn=978-85-7528-007-2 |page=114 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lq8qqV7jLNsC&q=%22el+rei+seleuco%22&pg=PT115 |language=pt-BR}}</ref>

''Anfitriões'', published in 1587, is an adaptation of [[Plautus]]' [[Amphitryon (Plautus play)|Amphitryon]], where it emphasizes the comic character of the [[Amphitryon]] myth, highlighting the omnipotence of love, which subdues even the immortals, also following the Vincentian tradition. The play was written in smaller ''redondilhas'' and uses bilingualism, using [[Castile (historical region)|Castilian]] in the lines of the character Sósia, a slave, to mark his low social level in passages that reach the grotesque, a feature that appears in the other pieces as well. ''Filodemo'', composed in India and dedicated to the viceroy D. [[Francisco Barreto]], is a comedy of morality in five acts, according to the classical division, being, of the three, the one that remained most alive in the interest of the critic due to the multiplicity of human experiences it describes and for the sharpness of psychological observation. The theme is about the love of a servant, Filodemo, for the daughter, Dionisa, of the nobleman in the house of the one he serves, with autobiographical traits.<ref name="Encyclopædia" /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Alves |first1=José Édil de Lima |title=História Da Literatura Portuguesa |year=2001 |publisher=Editora da ULBRA |isbn=978-85-7528-007-2 |pages=114–115 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lq8qqV7jLNsC&q=%22el+rei+seleuco%22&pg=PT115 |language=pt-BR}}</ref> Camões saw comedy as a secondary genre, of interest only as a diversion of circumstance, but he achieved significant results by transferring the comicality of the characters to the action and refining the plot, so he pointed out a path for the renewal of Portuguese comedy. However, his suggestion was not followed by the growers of the genus who succeeded him.<ref name="Encyclopædia" />