Editing Livonia (section)

=== Livonian War (1558–1583) ===
{{main|Livonian War}}
[[File:LivonianLady.jpg|thumb|''Livonian lady'' (1502). [[Albrecht Dürer]].]]
[[File:Livlandritter16jh.jpg|thumb|Livonian knight in the 16th century]]
[[Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor]] once again asked for help of [[Gustav I of Sweden]], and the [[Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569)|Kingdom of Poland]] also began direct [[negotiation]]s with Gustav, but nothing resulted because on 29 September 1560, Gustav I Vasa died. The chances for success of [[Magnus von Lyffland|Magnus]], (who had become Bishop of Courland and of Ösel-Wiek) in 1560 and his supporters looked particularly good in 1560 (and in 1570). In 1560 he had been [[Recognition (international law)|recognised]] as their [[Monarch|sovereign]] by the [[Bishopric of Ösel-Wiek]] and by the [[Bishopric of Courland]], and as their prospective ruler by the authorities of the [[Bishopric of Dorpat]]; the [[Bishopric of Reval]] with the [[Harrien]]-[[Wierland]] [[gentry]] were on his side; the [[Livonian Order]] conditionally recognised his right of [[ownership]] of the (future) [[Duchy of Estonia (1561–1721)|Duchy of Estonia]]. Then along with [[Archbishop]] [[Wilhelm von Brandenburg]] of the [[Archbishopric of Riga]] and his [[Coadjutor archbishop|Coadjutor]] [[Christopher, Duke of Mecklenburg-Gadebusch|Christoph von Mecklenburg]], [[Gotthard Kettler|Kettler]], the last Master of the Teutonic Order, gave to Magnus the portions of the [[Kingdom of Livonia]] which he had taken possession of, but they refused to give him any more land.{{cn|date=November 2024}}

Once [[Eric XIV of Sweden]] became king in September 1560 he took quick actions to get involved in the war. He negotiated a continued [[peace]] with [[Tsardom of Russia|Muscovy]] and spoke to the [[Burgess (title)|burghers]] of [[Reval]] city. He offered them goods to submit to him as well as threatening them. By 6 June 1561,they submitted to him contrary to the [[persuasion]]s of Kettler to the burghers. King Eric's brother and future King [[John III of Sweden|Johan]] married the Polish-Lithuanian princess [[Catherine Jagiellon]] in 1562. Wanting to obtain his own land in Livonia, he loaned Poland money and then claimed the castles that they had pawned as his own instead of using them to pressure Poland. After Johan returned to [[Finland]], Erik XIV forbade him to deal with any foreign countries without his consent.{{cn|date=November 2024}}

Shortly after that, Erik XIV quickly lost any allies that he was about to obtain, either in the form of Magnus or of the Archbishop of [[Riga]]. Magnus was upset that he had been tricked out of his [[inheritance]] of [[Holstein]]. After Sweden [[Military occupation|occupied]] Reval, [[Frederick II of Denmark]] made a treaty with Erik XIV of Sweden in August 1561. Magnus and his brother Frederick II were in great disagreement, and Frederick II negotiated a treaty with Ivan IV on 7 August 1562 to help his brother obtain more land and to stall further Swedish advances. Erik XIV did not like this, and the [[Northern Seven Years' War]] (1563–1570) broke out, with Sweden pitted against the [[Free City of Lübeck]], Denmark, and Poland-Lithuania. While only losing land and trade, Frederick II and Magnus were not faring well. But in 1568 Erik XIV became [[insane]] and his brother Johan took his place as King [[John III of Sweden]].{{cn|date=November 2024}}

Johan III, due to his friendship with Poland-Lithuania, began a policy against Muscovy. He would try to obtain more land in Livonia and to dominate Denmark. After all parties had been financially drained, Frederick II let his ally, King [[Sigismund II Augustus]] of [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]], know that he was ready for peace. On 15 December 1570, the [[Treaty of Stettin (1570)|Treaty of Stettin]] concluded the Northern Seven Years' War.{{cn|date=November 2024}}

It is, however, more difficult to estimate the scope and magnitude of the support Magnus received in Livonian cities.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}} Compared to the Harrien-Wierland gentry, the Reval city council, and hence probably the majority of citizens, demonstrated a much more reserved attitude towards Denmark and towards King Magnus of Livonia. Nevertheless, there is no reason to speak about any strong pro-Swedish sentiments among the residents of Reval. The citizens who had fled to the Bishopric of Dorpat or had been deported to Muscovy hailed Magnus as their saviour until 1571. Analysis indicates that during the [[Livonian War]] a pro-independence wing emerged among the Livonian gentry and townspeople, forming the so-called "Peace Party".{{citation needed|date=June 2020}} Dismissing hostilities, these forces perceived an agreement with Muscovy as a chance to escape the atrocities of war and to avoid the division of Livonia. Thus Magnus, who represented Denmark and later struck a deal with [[Ivan the Terrible|Ivan IV]], proved a suitable figurehead for this faction.{{cn|date=November 2024}}

The Peace Party, however, had its own armed forces – scattered bands of household troops (''[[Hofleute]]'') under diverse command, which only united in action in 1565 ([[Battle of Pärnu (1565)|Battle of Pärnu]] and [[Siege of Reval (1565)|Siege of Reval]]), in 1570–1571 ([[Siege of Reval (1570–1571)|Siege of Reval]]; 30 weeks), and in 1574–1576 (first on Sweden's side, then came the sale of [[Bishopric of Ösel–Wiek|Ösel–Wiek]] to the [[Monarchy of Denmark|Danish Crown]], and the loss of territory to [[Tsardom of Russia]]). In 1575, after Muscovy attacked Danish claims in Livonia, Frederick II dropped out of the competition, as did the Holy Roman Emperor. After this Johan III held off on his pursuit for more land due to Muscovy obtaining lands that Sweden controlled. He used the next two years of truce to get in a better position. In 1578, he resumed the fight, not only for Livonia, but also for everywhere due to an understanding that he made with the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]]. In 1578, Magnus retired to the Commonwealth and his brother all but gave up the land in Livonia.{{cn|date=November 2024}}

During the many years of the [[Livonian War]] (1558–1582), the Livonian Order suffered a decisive defeat at the hands of troops of [[Tsardom of Russia|Muscovite Russia]] in the [[Battle of Ergeme]] in 1560 and continued living under great threat. Letters to the [[Holy Roman Emperor]] arrived from many European countries, warning ''that Moscow has its eyes on much more than only a few harbors or the province of Liefland'' ... the East Sea (Ostsee-[[Baltic Sea]]) and the West Sea (Atlantic) are equally in danger. Duke Barnim the Elder, 50 years duke of Pomerania, warned, ''that never before did he experience the fear than now, where even in his land, where people send by Moscow are everywhere''.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}} At stake was the [[Narva]]-trade-route and practically all trade in the North, and with that all of Europe. Due to the religious upheavals of the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]] the distant [[Holy Roman Empire]] could not send troops, which it could not afford anyway. The [[Duchy of Prussia]] was not able to help for much of the same reason, and [[Albert, Duke of Prussia|Duke Albrecht]] ({{reign | 1525 | 1568}}) was under continuous ban by the Empire. The Hanseatic League was greatly weakened by this{{clarify|date=June 2020}} and the [[Free City of Lübeck|city state of Luebeck]] fought its last great war. The emperor [[Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian II]] ({{reign | 1564 | 1576}}) diffused the greatest threat by remaining on friendly terms with Tsar [[Ivan the Terrible|Ivan IV of Russia]] ({{reign | 1533 | 1584}}), but not sending Ivan IV troops as requested in his struggles with the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]].{{cn|date=November 2024}}

In 1570, Tsar Ivan IV of Russia installed [[Magnus, Duke of Holstein|Duke Magnus]] as [[Kingdom of Livonia|King of Livonia]]. The other forces opposed this appointment. The Livonian Order saw no other way than to seek protection from [[Sigismund II Augustus]] ([[Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569)|King of Poland]] and [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania|Grand Duke of Lithuania]]), who had intervened in a war between Bishop [[William of Brandenburg|William]] of Riga and the Brothers in 1557. After coming to an [[Wilno Pact|agreement]] with Sigismund II Augustus and his representatives (especially [[Mikołaj "the Black" Radziwiłł]]), the last Livonian Master, [[Gotthard Kettler]], secularized the Order and converted to [[Lutheranism]]. In the southern part of the Brothers' lands, he set up the [[Duchy of Courland and Semigallia]] for his family. Most of the remaining lands were seized by the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]]. Denmark and [[Swedish Empire|Sweden]] re-occupied the north of Estonia.{{cn|date=November 2024}}