Editing Lindow Man (section)

==Remains and investigation==
[[File:Lindow Man 02.jpg|thumb|Lindow Man's right foot]]
[[File:Lindow Man 04.JPG|thumb|Lindow Man's face]]
[[File:Lindow Man reconstructed face.jpg|thumb|upright|The reconstructed face of Lindow Man. For the process, a replica of his skull was created from [[radiograph]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|Prag|Neave|1997|pp=157–171}}</ref><ref>{{citation|url=http://www.rn-ds-partnership.com/Reconstruction/lindow.html |title=Lindow Man |publisher=RN-DS Partnership |access-date=9 July 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110715191441/http://www.rn-ds-partnership.com/Reconstruction/lindow.html |archive-date=15 July 2011 }}</ref>]]

Lindow Man marked the first discovery in Britain of a well-preserved bog body; its condition was comparable to that of [[Grauballe Man]] and [[Tollund Man]] from [[Denmark]]. Before Lindow Man was found, it was estimated that 41&nbsp;bog bodies had been found in England and Wales and 15 in Scotland. Encouraged by the discovery of Lindow Man, a gazetteer was compiled, which revealed a far higher number of bog bodies: over 85 in England and Wales and over 36 in Scotland. Prior to the discovery of the bodies in Lindow Moss, British bog bodies had been a relatively neglected subject compared to European examples. The interest caused by Lindow Man led to more in-depth research of accounts of discoveries in bogs since the 17th&nbsp;century; by 1995, the numbers had changed to 106 in England and Wales and 34 in Scotland. The remains covered a large time frame.<ref>{{Harvnb|Turner|1995b|p=108}}</ref>

In life, Lindow Man would have been between 5'6" and 5'8" (168 and 173&nbsp;cm) tall and weighed about {{convert|132|lb|kg}}. It was possible to ascertain that his age at death was around the mid-20s. The body retains a trimmed beard, moustache, and sideburns of brown hair, as well as healthy teeth with no visible cavities, and manicured fingernails, indicating he did little heavy or rough work.{{refn|Lindow Man's hair is currently red due to chemical changes caused by the bog in which he was buried; however, his hair was probably originally dark brown.<ref>{{Harvnb|Joy|2009|p=27}}</ref>|group=nb}} Apart from a fox-fur armband, Lindow Man was discovered completely naked.<ref name="RB456">{{Harvnb|Renfrew|Bahn|2006|p=456}}</ref> When he died, Lindow Man was suffering from slight [[osteoarthritis]] and an infestation of [[whipworm]] and [[Ascaris lumbricoides|maw worm]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Renfrew|Bahn|2006|pp=456–457}}</ref> As a result of the decalcification of the bones and pressure from the peat under which Lindow Man was buried, his skull was distorted.<ref>{{Harvnb|Brothwell|1995|p=102}}</ref> While some preserved human remains may contain DNA, peat bogs such as Lindow Moss are generally poor for such a purpose, and it is unlikely that DNA could be recovered from Lindow Man.<ref>{{Harvnb|Brothwell|1995|p=103}}</ref>

Lindow Man and Lindow&nbsp;III were found to have elevated levels of copper on their skin. The cause for this was uncertain as there could have been natural causes, although a study by Pyatt ''et al.'' proposed that the bodies may have been painted with a copper-based pigment.<ref>{{Harvnb|Pyatt|Beaumont|Lacy|Magilton|1991|pp=69–70}}, referenced in {{Harvnb|Cowell|Craddock|1995|p=74}}</ref> To test this, skin samples were taken from places likely to be painted and tested against samples from areas where painting was unlikely. It was found that the copper content of the skin of the torso was higher than the control areas, suggesting that the theory of Pyatt ''et al.'' may have been correct. However, the conclusion was ambiguous as the overall content was above that expected of a male, and variations across the body may have been due to environmental factors.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cowell|Craddock|1995|pp=74–75}}</ref> Similarly, green deposits were found in the hair, originally thought to be a copper-based pigment used for decoration, but it was later found to be the result of a reaction between the [[keratin]] in the hair and the acid of the peat bog.<ref name="RB456"/>

Dating Lindow Man is problematic as samples from the body and surrounding peat have produced dates spanning a 900-year period. Although the peat encasing Lindow Man has been [[radiocarbon dating|radiocarbon dated]] to about 300&nbsp;BC, Lindow Man himself has a different date.<ref>{{Harvnb|Brothwell|1986|pp=16–17}}</ref> Early tests at different laboratories returned conflicting dates for the body; later tests suggested a date between 2&nbsp;BC and 119&nbsp;AD.<ref name="Joy 23">{{Harvnb|Joy|2009|p=23}}</ref><ref name="Buckland 47">{{Harvnb|Buckland|1995|p=47}}</ref> There has been a tendency to ascribe the body to the [[Iron Age]] period rather than Roman due to the interpretation that Lindow Man's death may have been a ritual sacrifice or execution.<ref name="Buckland 47"/> Explanations for why the peat in which he was found is much older have been sought. Archaeologist P.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;Buckland suggests that as the stratigraphy of the peat appears undisturbed, Lindow Man may have been deposited into a pool that was already some 300&nbsp;years old.<ref>{{Harvnb|Buckland|1995|pp=49–50}}</ref> Geographer K.&nbsp;E.&nbsp;Barber has argued against this hypothesis, saying that pools at Lindow Moss would have been too shallow, and suggests that the peat may have been peeled back to allow the burial and then replaced, leaving the stratigraphy apparently undisturbed.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barber|1995|p=51}}</ref>

Lindow Man's last meal was preserved in his stomach and intestines and was analysed in some detail.<ref>{{Harvnb|Holden|1986|pp=116–125}}</ref> It was hoped that investigations into the contents of the stomach would shed light on the contemporary diet, as was the case with Grauballe Man and Tollund Man in the 1950s. The analysis of the contents of the digestive system of bog bodies had become one of the principal endeavours of investigating such remains.<ref>{{Harvnb|Holden|1995|p=76}}</ref> Analysis of the grains present revealed his diet to be mostly of [[cereal]]s. He probably ate slightly charred bread, although the burning may have had ritual significance rather than being an accident.<ref>{{Harvnb|Brothwell|1986|pp=90,&nbsp;94}}</ref> Some [[mistletoe]] pollen was also found in the stomach, indicating that Lindow Man died in March or April.<ref>{{Harvnb|Brothwell|1986|pp=95–96}}</ref><ref name="Dash">Mike Dash, "The bodies in the bogs." [https://mikedashhistory.com/2016/09/04/the-bodies-in-the-bogs// A Blast From the Past, 4 September 2016.]</ref>

One of the conclusions of the study was that the people buried in Lindow Moss may have had a less varied diet than their European counterparts.<ref name="Brothwell 1995 101">{{Harvnb|Brothwell|1995|p=101}}</ref> According to Jody Joy, curator of the Iron Age collection at the [[British Museum]],<ref>{{citation |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/the_museum/departments/staff/prehistory_and_europe/jody_joy.aspx |title=Jody Joy |publisher=British Museum |access-date=3 July 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110107114808/http://www.britishmuseum.org/the_museum/departments/staff/prehistory_and_europe/jody_joy.aspx |archive-date=7 January 2011 }}</ref> the importance of Lindow Man lies more in how he lived rather than how he died, as the circumstances surrounding his demise may never be fully established.<ref name="Guardian">{{citation |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2008/jan/28/archaeology.forensicscience |title=First-century Lindow Man goes back to his roots |work=[[The Guardian]] |last=Kennedy |first=Maev |date=28 January 2008 |access-date=3 July 2010}}</ref>

===Cause of death===
[[File:Lindow man top of head.JPG|thumb|right|The top of the Lindow Man's head. The V-shaped cut can be seen at the lower centre.]]

As the peat was cleaned off the body in the laboratory, it became clear that Lindow Man had suffered a violent death. The injuries included a V-shaped, {{convert|3.5|cm|in|adj=on}} cut on top of his head; a possible laceration at the back of the head, ligature marks on the neck where a sinew cord was found, a possible wound on the right side of the neck, a possible stab wound in the upper right chest, a broken neck, and a fractured rib. [[Xeroradiography]] revealed that the blow on top of the head (causing the V-shaped cut) was caused by a relatively blunt object; it had fractured the skull and driven fragments into the brain. Swelling along the edges of the wound indicated that Lindow Man had lived after being struck. The blow, possibly from a small axe, would have caused unconsciousness, but the victim could have survived for several hours afterwards. The ligature marks on the neck were caused by tightening the sinew cord found around his neck, possibly a garrotte or necklace.<ref>{{Harvnb|Joy|2009|p=39}}</ref>

It is not possible to confirm whether some injuries took place before or after death, due to the body's state of decay. This is the case for the wound in the upper right chest and the laceration on the back of the skull.<ref>{{Harvnb|Joy|2009|pp=39, 42}}</ref> The cut on the right of the neck may have been the result of the body becoming bloated, causing the skin to split, but the straight edges of the wound suggest that it may have been caused by a sharp instrument, such as a knife.<ref>{{Harvnb|Joy|2009|p= 43}}</ref> The ligature marks on the neck may have occurred after death. In some interpretations of Lindow Man's death, the sinew is a garrotte used to break the victim's neck. However, Robert Connolly, a lecturer in physical anthropology, suggests that the sinew may have been ornamental and that ligature marks may have been caused by the body swelling when submerged. The rib fracture may also have occurred after death, perhaps during the discovery of the body, but is included in some narratives of the Lindow Man's death.<ref>{{Harvnb|Joy|2009|pp=42–43}}</ref> The broken neck would have proven the fatal injury, whether caused by the sinew cord tightening around the neck or by blows to the back of the head.<ref name="Joy 44">{{Harvnb|Joy|2009|p=44}}</ref> After death, Lindow Man was deposited into Lindow Moss face down.<ref>{{Harvnb|Joy|2009|p=38}}</ref>