Editing Jupiter (section)

=== Internal structure ===
[[File:Jupiter diagram.svg|thumb|upright=2|alt=Refer to caption|Diagram of Jupiter with its interior, surface features, rings, and inner moons]]
Before the early 21st century, most scientists proposed one of two scenarios for the formation of Jupiter. If the planet accreted first as a solid body, it would consist of a dense [[planetary core|core]], a surrounding layer of fluid [[metallic hydrogen]] (with some helium) extending outward to about 80% of the radius of the planet,<ref>{{cite journal | last=Smoluchowski | first=R. | year=1971 | title=Metallic interiors and magnetic fields of Jupiter and Saturn | journal=The Astrophysical Journal | volume=166 | page=435 | doi=10.1086/150971 | bibcode=1971ApJ...166..435S | doi-access=free }}</ref> and an outer atmosphere consisting primarily of [[molecular hydrogen]].<ref name="guillot04"/> Alternatively, if the planet collapsed directly from the gaseous [[protoplanetary disk]], it was expected to completely lack a core, consisting instead of a denser and denser fluid (predominantly molecular and metallic hydrogen) all the way to the centre. Data from the [[Juno (spacecraft)|''Juno'' mission]] showed that Jupiter has a diffuse core that mixes into its mantle, extending for 30–50% of the planet's radius, and comprising heavy elements with a combined mass 7–25 times the Earth.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wahl |first1=S. M. |last2=Hubbard |first2=William B. |last3=Militzer |first3=B. |last4=Guillot |first4=Tristan |last5=Miguel |first5=Y. |last6=Movshovitz |first6=N. |last7=Kaspi |first7=Y. |last8=Helled |first8=R. |last9=Reese |first9=D. |last10=Galanti |first10=E. |last11=Levin |first11=S. |last12=Connerney |first12=J. E. |last13=Bolton |first13=S. J. |title=Comparing Jupiter interior structure models to Juno gravity measurements and the role of a dilute core |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |volume=44 |issue=10 |pages=4649–4659 |year=2017 |doi=10.1002/2017GL073160 |doi-access=free |arxiv=1707.01997 |bibcode=2017GeoRL..44.4649W }}</ref><ref name=dilute>{{cite journal|title=The Formation of Jupiter's Diluted Core by a Giant Impact|journal=Nature|date=August 15, 2019|author=Shang-Fei Liu|display-authors=et al.|doi=10.1038/s41586-019-1470-2|volume=572|issue=7769 |pages=355–357|pmid=31413376 |arxiv=2007.08338|bibcode=2019Natur.572..355L |s2cid=199576704 }}</ref><ref name="NYT-20160705">{{cite news |last=Chang |first=Kenneth |date=July 5, 2016 |title=NASA's Juno Spacecraft Enters Jupiter's Orbit |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/05/science/juno-enters-jupiters-orbit-capping-5-year-voyage.html |access-date=July 5, 2016 |archive-date=May 2, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190502211501/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/05/science/juno-enters-jupiters-orbit-capping-5-year-voyage.html |url-status=live }}</ref> This mixing process could have arisen during formation, while the planet accreted solids and gases from the surrounding nebula.<ref name="stevenson2022">{{cite journal| last1=Stevenson| first1=D. J.| last2=Bodenheimer| first2=P.| last3=Lissauer| first3=J. J.| last4=D'Angelo| first4=G.| title= Mixing of Condensable Constituents with H-He during the Formation and Evolution of Jupiter|year=2022| journal=The Planetary Science Journal| volume=3| pages=id.74| issue=4| doi=10.3847/PSJ/ac5c44| arxiv=2202.09476| bibcode=2022PSJ.....3...74S| s2cid=247011195| doi-access=free}}</ref> Alternatively, it could have been caused by an impact from a planet of about ten Earth masses a few million years after Jupiter's formation, which would have disrupted an originally compact Jovian core.<ref name=dilute/><ref name="nature2019_2">{{cite journal| last=Guillot| first=T.|year=2019| journal=Nature| pages=315–317| issue=7769| title=Signs that Jupiter was mixed by a giant impact| volume=572| doi=10.1038/d41586-019-02401-1| pmid=31413374| bibcode=2019Natur.572..315G| doi-access=free}}</ref>

Outside the layer of metallic hydrogen lies a transparent interior atmosphere of hydrogen. At this depth, the pressure and temperature are above molecular hydrogen's [[critical pressure]] of 1.3 [[Pascal (unit)|MPa]] and [[critical temperature]] of {{cvt|33|K|C F|lk=on}}.<ref>{{cite journal | title=Dynamic transition of supercritical hydrogen: Defining the boundary between interior and atmosphere in gas giants | last1=Trachenko | first1=K. | last2=Brazhkin | first2=V. V. | last3=Bolmatov | first3=D. | journal=Physical Review E | volume=89 | issue=3 | id=032126 | date=March 2014 | page=032126 | doi=10.1103/PhysRevE.89.032126 | pmid=24730809 | arxiv=1309.6500 | bibcode=2014PhRvE..89c2126T | s2cid=42559818 }}</ref> In this state, there are no distinct liquid and gas phases—hydrogen is said to be in a [[supercritical fluid]] state. The hydrogen and helium gas extending downward from the cloud layer gradually transitions to a liquid in deeper layers, possibly resembling something akin to an ocean of liquid hydrogen and other supercritical fluids.<ref name="elkins-tanton"/>{{rp|22}}<ref>{{cite web | first=Dauna | last=Coulter | title=A Freaky Fluid inside Jupiter? | url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2011/09aug_juno3 | website=[[NASA]] | access-date=December 8, 2021 | archive-date=December 9, 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211209022840/https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2011/09aug_juno3 | url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title= NASA System Exploration Jupiter|url= https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/jupiter/in-depth.amp|website= [[NASA]]|access-date= December 8, 2021|archive-date= November 4, 2021|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20211104172628/https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/jupiter/in-depth.amp|url-status= live}}</ref> Physically, the gas gradually becomes hotter and denser as depth increases.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Guillot |first=T. |title=A comparison of the interiors of Jupiter and Saturn |journal=Planetary and Space Science |year=1999 |volume=47 |issue=10–11 |pages=1183–1200 |bibcode=1999P&SS...47.1183G |arxiv=astro-ph/9907402 |doi=10.1016/S0032-0633(99)00043-4 |s2cid=19024073 |url=https://cds.cern.ch/record/394768 |access-date=June 21, 2023 |archive-date=May 19, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210519002044/http://cds.cern.ch/record/394768 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="lang03">{{cite web |last=Lang |first=Kenneth R. |year=2003 |url=http://ase.tufts.edu/cosmos/view_chapter.asp?id=9&page=3 |title=Jupiter: a giant primitive planet |publisher=NASA |access-date=January 10, 2007 |archive-date=May 14, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514093512/http://ase.tufts.edu/cosmos/view_chapter.asp?id=9&page=3 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Rain-like droplets of helium and neon precipitate downward through the lower atmosphere, depleting the abundance of these elements in the upper atmosphere.<ref name="galileo_ms"/><ref>{{cite journal |last=Lodders |first=Katharina|author-link=Katharina Lodders |title=Jupiter Formed with More Tar than Ice |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |year=2004 |volume=611 |issue=1 |pages=587–597 |doi=10.1086/421970 |bibcode=2004ApJ...611..587L|s2cid=59361587 |url=http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/afa4/68519084fe3a3076b614442803056943e202.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200412141533/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/afa4/68519084fe3a3076b614442803056943e202.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=April 12, 2020 }}</ref> Calculations suggest that helium drops separate from metallic hydrogen at a radius of {{Convert|60000|km|mi|abbr=unit}} ({{Convert|11000|km|mi|abbr=unit|disp=sqbr}} below the cloud tops) and merge again at {{Convert|50000|km|mi|abbr=unit}} ({{Convert|22000|km|mi|abbr=unit|disp=sqbr}} beneath the clouds).<ref>{{cite journal
 | title=Evidence of hydrogen−helium immiscibility at Jupiter-interior conditions
 | last1=Brygoo | first1=S. | last2=Loubeyre | first2=P.
 | last3=Millot | first3=M. | last4=Rygg | first4=J. R.
 | last5=Celliers | first5=P. M. | last6=Eggert | first6=J. H.
 | last7=Jeanloz | first7=R. | last8=Collins | first8=G. W.
 | journal=Nature | volume=593 | issue=7860 | pages=517–521
 | year=2021 | doi=10.1038/s41586-021-03516-0 | pmid=34040210 | bibcode=2021Natur.593..517B
| osti=1820549 | s2cid=235217898 }}</ref> Rainfalls of [[extraterrestrial diamonds|diamonds]] have been suggested to occur, as well as on Saturn<ref name="SC-20131009">{{cite news |last=Kramer |first=Miriam |title=Diamond Rain May Fill Skies of Jupiter and Saturn |url=https://www.space.com/23135-diamond-rain-jupiter-saturn.html |date=October 9, 2013 |work=[[Space.com]] |access-date=August 27, 2017 |archive-date=August 27, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170827171415/https://www.space.com/23135-diamond-rain-jupiter-saturn.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and the ice giants Uranus and Neptune.<ref name="WP-20170825">{{cite news |last=Kaplan |first=Sarah |title=It rains solid diamonds on Uranus and Neptune |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/speaking-of-science/wp/2017/08/25/it-rains-solid-diamonds-on-uranus-and-neptune/ |date=August 25, 2017 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=August 27, 2017 |archive-date=August 27, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170827011901/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/speaking-of-science/wp/2017/08/25/it-rains-solid-diamonds-on-uranus-and-neptune/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

The temperature and pressure inside Jupiter increase steadily inward as the heat of planetary formation can only escape by convection.<ref name="Juno"/> At a surface depth where the atmospheric pressure level is {{cvt|1|bar|MPa|lk=on}}, the temperature is around {{cvt|165|K|C F}}. The region where supercritical hydrogen changes gradually from a molecular fluid to a metallic fluid spans pressure ranges of {{cvt|500000|-|4000000|bar|GPa|disp=out}} with temperatures of {{cvt|5000|-|8400|K|C F}}, respectively. The temperature of Jupiter's diluted core is estimated to be {{cvt|20000|K|C F}} with a pressure of around {{convert|40|e6bar|GPa|disp=out|abbr=unit}}.<ref name=Guillot_et_al_2004>{{cite book | chapter=The interior of Jupiter | bibcode=2004jpsm.book...35G | last1=Guillot | first1=Tristan | last2=Stevenson | first2=David J. | last3=Hubbard | first3=William B. | last4=Saumon | first4=Didier | title=Jupiter. The planet, satellites and magnetosphere | editor1-first=Fran | editor1-last=Bagenal | editor2-first=Timothy E. | editor2-last=Dowling | editor3-first=William B. | editor3-last=McKinnon | series=Cambridge planetary science | volume=1 | publication-place=Cambridge, UK | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=0-521-81808-7 | date=2004 | page=45 | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aMERHqj9ivcC&pg=PA45 | access-date=March 19, 2023 | archive-date=March 26, 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164803/https://books.google.com/books?id=aMERHqj9ivcC&pg=PA45 | url-status=live }}</ref>