Editing Joseph Chamberlain (section)

== National politics ==
=== Parliament and National Liberal Federation: 1876–80 ===
Chamberlain was invited to stand for election as an MP by the [[Sheffield]] Reform Association, an offshoot of the Liberal Party in the city, soon after starting as mayor. Chamberlain's first Parliamentary campaign [[1874 United Kingdom general election|in 1874]] was a fierce one; opponents accused him of [[republicanism]] and [[atheism]] and even threw dead cats at him on the speaking platform. Chamberlain came in third—a poor result for a leading urban Radical—and rejected the possibility of standing in Sheffield again. Instead, he stood unopposed for a [[Birmingham constituency]] by-election in 1876, after [[George Dixon (MP)|George Dixon]] resigned. Following his nomination, Chamberlain denounced Prime Minister [[Benjamin Disraeli]] as "a man who never told the truth except by accident." After Chamberlain came under heavy attack for the insult, creating anxiety for the Liberals, he apologised publicly.{{sfn|Mackintosh|1914|p=39}} Upon his election, Chamberlain resigned as mayor and was introduced to the House of Commons by [[John Bright]] and [[Joseph Cowen]]. On 4 August 1876, Chamberlain made his maiden speech during a debate on elementary schools, using his experience on the Birmingham School Board. He spoke for twenty minutes on the maintenance of clause 25 with Disraeli present.

Almost immediately upon entry to the [[House of Commons]], Chamberlain began to organise the Radical MPs into a coherent parliamentary group, with the intent to displace [[British Whig Party|Whig]] dominance of the Liberal Party. Early difficulties within Parliament led Chamberlain to favor a [[grassroots|grassroots approach]] instead, organising local chapters as the foundation of an effective national movement.

To gain footing for the Radicals, Chamberlain sought to close ranks with Gladstone to profit from the leader's increasing popularity and harness popular opposition to Disraeli's aggressive foreign policy, beginning with outrage over [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] atrocities in [[List of massacres in Ottoman Bulgaria|Bulgaria]] and the resulting [[Russo-Turkish War, 1877–1878|Russo-Turkish War]]. Chamberlain joined Gladstone in arguing Disraeli's policy diverted attention from domestic reform, but unlike many Liberals, Chamberlain was not an anti-imperialist; although he berated the government for its Eastern policy, the [[Second Afghan War]], and the [[Anglo-Zulu War]], he supported Disraeli's purchase of [[Suez Company (1858–1997)|Suez Canal Company]] shares in November 1875. At this stage of his career, Chamberlain was eager to see the protection of British overseas interests but placed greater emphasis on a conception of justice in the pursuit of such interests.

On 31 May 1877, the [[National Liberal Federation]] (NLF) was founded at [[Bingley Hall]], with Gladstone offering the inaugural address, Chamberlain as its president, and Birmingham politicians playing a dominant part in its organisation. The NLF enhanced Chamberlain's party influence and gave him a national platform. Through the NLF, Chamberlain tightened party discipline and campaigning, enlisted new party members, organised political meetings and published posters and pamphlets. Contemporary commentators drew often-disparaging comparisons between the Federation and the techniques of American [[political machines]], with Chamberlain serving the role of a [[political boss]]. Chamberlain joined the Liberal denunciations of the government's foreign policy in the [[1880 United Kingdom general election|1880 general election]], and Gladstone returned as prime minister.

===President of the Board of Trade: 1880–85===
[[File:The Treasury Bench Vanity Fair 6 July 1880.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.3|[[William Ewart Gladstone]], [[Lord Hartington]], and Chamberlain as depicted in ''[[Vanity Fair (British magazine)|Vanity Fair]]'', 6 July 1880]]
Despite having sat in Parliament for only four years, Chamberlain hoped for a Cabinet position, and told [[Sir William Harcourt]] that he was prepared to lead a revolt and field Radical candidates in borough elections. Although Gladstone did not hold the NLF in high regard, he was eager to reconcile Chamberlain and other Radicals to the mainly Whig cabinet, and he invited Chamberlain to become [[President of the Board of Trade]] on 27 April 1880.

After his success in municipal politics, Chamberlain was frustrated at his inability to introduce more creative legislation at the Board of Trade. Between 1880 and 1883, the government was preoccupied with Ireland, the [[South African Republic|Transvaal]], and [[Khedivate of Egypt|Egypt]]. Chamberlain introduced bills for the safer transportation of grain, for enabling municipal corporations to establish electricity supplies, and for ensuring a fairer system of payment for seamen. After 1883, Chamberlain was more productive and expanded the scope of his authority; he introduced bills establishing a Board of Trade Bankruptcy Department for inquiring into failed business deals and subjecting patents to Board of Trade supervision. Chamberlain also sought to end the practice of over-insuring [[Coffin ship (insurance)|coffin ships]], but despite endorsements by [[Tory Democracy|Tory Democrats]] [[Lord Randolph Churchill]] and [[John Eldon Gorst]], the government was unwilling to grant Chamberlain its full support and the Bill was withdrawn in July 1884.

====Ireland====
As President of the Board of Trade, Chamberlain took a special interest in Ireland. Chamberlain strongly opposed the [[Irish Home Rule movement]] on the belief that home rule would lead to the eventual break-up of the empire; he declared, "I cannot admit that five millions of Irishmen have any greater right to govern themselves without regard to the rest of the United Kingdom than the five million inhabitants of [[London|the metropolis]]". In an effort to quiet agitation in Ireland through appeasement, Chamberlain supported calls for a [[Irish Land League|Land Bill]] and opposed [[Chief Secretary for Ireland|Chief Secretary]] [[William Edward Forster]]'s tactics of lethal force and mass imprisonment. In April 1881, Gladstone's government introduced the Irish Land Act, but [[Charles Stewart Parnell]] encouraged tenants to withhold rents. As a result, Parnell and other leaders were imprisoned in [[Kilmainham Gaol]] on 13 October 1881.

Chamberlain supported the imprisonment and used it to bargain the informal [[Kilmainham Treaty]] in 1882. Under the informal agreement, the government released Parnell in return for his co-operation in implementing the Land Act. Forster resigned, but his successor, [[Lord Frederick Cavendish]], was [[Phoenix Park Murders|murdered]] by members of the [[Irish National Invincibles]] on 6 May 1882, leaving the treaty almost useless. Many, including Parnell, believed that Chamberlain would be offered the Chief Secretaryship, but Gladstone appointed Sir [[Sir George Trevelyan, 2nd Baronet|George Otto Trevelyan]] instead. Nevertheless, Chamberlain maintained an interest in Irish affairs and proposed to the Cabinet an Irish [[Central Board]] that would have legislative powers for land, education and communications, which was rejected by the Whigs in Cabinet on 9 May 1885.

====Electoral reform====
Early in the Gladstone ministry, Chamberlain unsuccessfully suggested the extension of the franchise; the Prime Minister deferred until 1884, when the Liberals proposed a [[Representation of the People Act 1884|Third Reform Bill]] which gave the vote to hundreds of thousands of rural labourers. Chamberlain and the Radicals campaigned to capture the new voters with public meetings, speeches and articles written in the ''Fortnightly Review''. The Third Reform Act of 1884 was followed by the [[Redistribution of Seats Act 1885]], negotiated by Gladstone and Conservative leader [[Lord Salisbury]].

[[File:The Cabinet Council Vanity Fair 27 November 1883.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|The Gladstone cabinet as depicted in ''[[Vanity Fair (British magazine)|Vanity Fair]]'', 27 November 1883]]
During debate on the 1884 County Franchise Bill, Chamberlain famously declared that Salisbury was "himself the spokesman of a class — a class to which he himself belongs — [[Matthew 6:28|who toil not neither do they spin]]." In response, Salisbury branded Chamberlain a "Sicilian bandit" and [[Stafford Northcote]] called him "[[Jack Cade]]". When Chamberlain suggested that he would march on London with thousands of Birmingham constituents to protest against the [[House of Lords]]' powers, Salisbury remarked that "Mr. Chamberlain will return from his adventure with a broken head if nothing worse."

====1885 election====
In 1885, Chamberlain sought to "utterly destroy the Whigs, and have a Radical government before many years are out." To that end, Chamberlain and [[Sir Charles Dilke]] privately presented their resignations to Gladstone on 20 May, after the Cabinet had rejected Chamberlain's proposed Irish plan and his scheme for the creation of National Councils in England, Scotland, and Wales. The resignations were not made public, but the opportunity came for Chamberlain to present his Radicalism to the country after the [[List of successful votes of no confidence in British governments#Second defeat of the Gladstone ministry (1885)|Gladstone budget failed on 8 June]], triggering a [[1885 United Kingdom general election|new general election]] with a dramatically expanded, redistributed electorate.

In July 1885, Chamberlain wrote the preface to the ''Radical Programme'', the first campaign handbook in British political history. It endorsed [[land reform]], more direct taxation, free public education, the disestablishment of the [[Church of England]], universal male suffrage, and greater protection for trade unions. Chamberlain drew inspiration from his friend [[Frederick Maxse]]'s 1873 pamphlet ''The Causes of Social Revolt''.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bowie|first1=Duncan|title=Our History: Roots of the British Socialist Movement|date=2014|publisher=Socialist History Society|location=London|isbn=978-0-9555138-9-3|page=21}}</ref> Chamberlain's proposal to separate free education for every child from the religious question was rejected by groups on all sides, including the NLF, Nonconformists, Catholics and more generally, taxpayers.<ref>Alan Simon, "Joseph Chamberlain and Free Education in the Election of 1885," ''History of Education'' (1973) 2#1 pp 56–78.</ref> The ''Programme'' earned the scorn of Whig Liberals and Conservatives alike.

Chamberlain began his election campaign at [[Kingston upon Hull|Hull]] on 5 August, in front of large posters declaring him to be "your coming Prime Minister." Until the campaign's end in October, he denounced opponents of the ''Programme'' and used the slogan "[[Three Acres and a Cow]]" to endorse the cause of the rural labourers, offering to make smallholdings available to them by using funds from local authorities. Chamberlain's campaign attracted large crowds and enthralled the young [[Ramsay MacDonald]] and [[David Lloyd George]], but disturbed leading Liberals like [[George Goschen, 1st Viscount Goschen|George Goschen]], who called it the "Unauthorised Programme". The Conservatives denounced Chamberlain as an anarchist, with some{{who|date=October 2022}} even comparing him to [[Dick Turpin]].

In October 1885, as the campaign came to a close, Chamberlain visited Gladstone at [[Hawarden Castle (18th century)|Hawarden Castle]] to reconcile their respective electoral programmes. The meeting, although good-natured, was largely unproductive, and Gladstone neglected to tell Chamberlain of his ongoing negotiations with Parnell over Irish Home Rule. Chamberlain was informed their existence by [[Henry Labouchere]], but, did not press the issue, unsure of the precise nature of Gladstone's offer.

The Liberals [[1885 United Kingdom general election|won a plurality in November 1885]] but fell just short of a majority against the Conservatives. The Irish Nationalists held the balance of power between the two parties.

====Liberal split====
On 17 December, [[Herbert Gladstone]] [[Hawarden Kite|revealed]] that his father, needing Nationalist support, was prepared to implement Home Rule. At first, Chamberlain was reluctant to anger his Radical followers by joining forces with the anti-Home Rule Whigs and Conservatives. While saying little about the topic publicly, Chamberlain privately damned Gladstone and Home Rule to colleagues, believing that maintaining the Conservatives in power for a further year would make the Irish question easier to settle.

Chamberlain declined Gladstone's offer of the office of [[First Lord of the Admiralty]]; Gladstone in turn rejected Chamberlain's request for the [[Colonial Office]] and eventually appointed him [[President of the Local Government Board]]. Their personal relationship worsened after a dispute over the amount to be paid to Collings, Chamberlain's [[Parliamentary Secretary]], although Chamberlain still hoped that he could alter or block Gladstone's Home Rule proposal in Cabinet and renew his scheme for National Councils, but the topic was never discussed.

On 13 March 1886, Gladstone's proposals for Ireland were revealed. Chamberlain argued that the details of the accompanying Land Purchase Bill should be made known in order for a fair judgment on Home Rule. When Gladstone stated his intention to give Ireland a separate Parliament with full powers to deal with Irish affairs, Chamberlain resolved to resign and wrote to inform Gladstone of his decision two days later. In the meantime, Chamberlain consulted with [[Arthur Balfour]] over the possibility of concerted action with the Conservatives and contemplated similar co-operation with the Whigs. His resignation was made public on 27 March 1886.

===Liberal Unionist: 1886–93===
Immediately after his resignation from Cabinet, Chamberlain launched a ferocious campaign against Gladstone's Irish proposals. His motivations combined imperial, domestic, and personal themes: imperial because the proposal threatened to weaken Parliament's control over the United Kingdom, domestic because they downplayed the Radical programme, and personal because they weakened his own standing in the party.{{sfn|Marsh|2004}}

On 9 April, Chamberlain spoke against the [[Irish Government Bill 1886|Irish Home Rule Bill]] in its first reading. Chamberlain's chances of displacing Gladstone as party leader declined dramatically and in early May, the National Liberal Federation declared its loyalty to Gladstone. On 14 May, Chamberlain attended a meeting of [[Liberal Unionist]]s, from which arose the Liberal Unionist Association, an ''ad hoc'' alliance to demonstrate the unity of anti-Home Rulers.<ref>{{cite book|author=Peter Barberis|title=Encyclopedia of British and Irish Political Organizations: Parties, Groups and Movements of the 20th Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qps14mSlghcC&pg=PA313|year=2000|publisher=A&C Black|page=313|display-authors=etal|isbn=9780826458148}}</ref> Meanwhile, to distinguish himself from the Whigs, Chamberlain founded the National Radical Union to rival the NLF. During its second reading on 8 June, the Home Rule Bill was defeated by the combined opposition of Chamberlain radicals, Conservatives, and Whigs. In all, 93 Liberals voted against Gladstone.<ref>{{cite book|author=Patrick Jackson|title=Harcourt and Son: A Political Biography of Sir William Harcourt, 1827–1904|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y3f2twWl-jMC&pg=PA159|year=2004|publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson U P|page=159|isbn=9780838640364}}</ref>

====1886 election and Unionist government====
Parliament was dissolved, and in the [[1886 United Kingdom general election|July 1886 general election]], the Conservatives and Liberal Unionists, led by Lord Salisbury and [[Lord Hartington]], agreed to an alliance. Chamberlain's position in the alliance was awkward; unlike Hartington, he was intensely mistrusted by and unable to influence the Conservatives, and he was also despised by the Gladstonians. Gladstone himself observed, "There is a difference between Hartington and Chamberlain, that the first behaves like and is a thorough gentleman. Of the other, it is better not to speak."<ref>{{cite book|first=Andrew | last=Jones|author-link = Andrew Jones (historian)|title=The Politics of Reform 1884|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=39o8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44|year=1972|page=44| publisher=CUP Archive|isbn=9780521083768}}</ref> The general election was dominated by Home Rule, and Chamberlain's campaign was both Radical and intensely patriotic. The Unionist alliance took 393 seats in the House of Commons and a comfortable majority.{{sfn|Marsh|1994|pp=250–54}}

Chamberlain did not enter the [[Second Salisbury ministry|Unionist government]], aware of Conservative hostility and not wishing to alienate his Radical base. The Liberal mainstream cast Chamberlain as a villain, shouting "Judas!" and "Traitor!" as he entered the House of Commons. Unable to associate decisively with either party, Chamberlain sought concerted action with a kindred spirit from the Conservative Party, Chancellor of the Exchequer [[Lord Randolph Churchill]]. In November 1886, Churchill announced his own programme at [[Dartford]], borrowing much from Chamberlain's, including smallholdings for rural labourers and greater local government. The next month, Churchill resigned as Chancellor over military spending; when the Conservative mainstream rallied around Salisbury, Churchill's career was effectively ended, and so too was Chamberlain's hope of creating a powerful cross-party alliance of Radicals. The appointment of George Goschen to succeed Churchill isolated Chamberlain further and symbolised the strong relationship between non-Radical Liberal Unionists and the Conservatives.{{sfn|Marsh|1994|pp=255–80}}

In January 1887, Chamberlain, Trevelyan, Harcourt, [[John Morley]] and [[Lord Herschell]] participated in a series of Round Table Conferences to resolve the Liberal Party's Irish policy. Chamberlain hoped an accord would enable him to claim the Liberal leadership and influence over the Conservatives. Although a preliminary agreement was made concerning land purchase, Gladstone was unwilling to compromise further, and negotiations ended by March. In August 1887, Lord Salisbury invited Chamberlain to lead the British delegation to resolve a fisheries dispute between the United States and [[Newfoundland Colony|Newfoundland]]. The visit to the United States renewed his enthusiasm for politics and enhanced his standing with respect to Gladstone.{{sfn|Marsh|1994|pp=289–311}}

Upon his return to Britain, Chamberlain and Radicalism experienced new political success. He extracted his supporters from the Liberal Party and created the Liberal Unionist Association in 1888, associated with his National Radical Union. The Salisbury ministry implemented a number of Radical reforms as well. Between 1888 and 1889, democratic [[County council]]s were established. By 1891, measures for the provision of smallholdings had been made, and the free, compulsory education was extended to the entire country. Chamberlain wrote, "I have in the last five years seen more progress made with the practical application of my political programme than in all my previous life. I owe this result entirely to my former opponents, and all the opposition has come from my former friends."<ref>{{cite book|author=Jules Philip Gehrke|title=Municipal Anti-socialism and the Growth of the Anti-socialist Critique in Britain, 1873–1914|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=03GL7IX0DVUC&pg=PA65|year=2006|page=65|isbn=9780542793653}}</ref>

====1892 election and return to minority====
In the [[1892 United Kingdom general election|1892 general election]], Gladstone returned to power with a Liberal-Irish Nationalist coalition. The Liberal Unionists did well in Birmingham and made gains in the neighbouring [[Black Country]], and Chamberlain's son Austen entered the House of Commons unopposed for [[East Worcestershire]]. However, the Liberal Unionists were reduced to 47 seats, falling behind in an age of well-organized mass national politics, and Chamberlain's standing was accordingly weakened. Gladstone made no effort to reunite with Chamberlain, and the Liberal Unionists drew closer to the Conservatives.<ref>Ian Cawood, "The 1892 General Election and the Eclipse of the Liberal Unionists," ''Parliamentary History'' (2010) 29#3 pp 331–357.</ref> When Hartington took his seat in the House of Lords as the Duke of Devonshire, Chamberlain assumed leadership of the Liberal Unionists in the House of Commons, beginning a productive relationship with Arthur Balfour, Conservative leader in the Commons.{{sfn|Crosby|2011|p=78}}

Gladstone introduced a [[Second Home Rule Bill]] in February 1893. Although the Bill passed the House of Commons, the Lords rejected Home Rule by a huge margin. With his party divided, Gladstone prepared to [[Dissolution of the Parliament of the United Kingdom|dissolve Parliament]] on the issue of the House of Lords' veto, but was compelled to resign in March 1894 by his colleagues. He was replaced by [[Lord Rosebery]], who neglected the topic of Home Rule. Chamberlain continued to form alliances with the Conservatives.

[[File:Joseph ('Joe') Chamberlain; Arthur James Balfour, 1st Earl of Balfour by Sydney Prior Hall.jpg|thumb|325px|''[[Joseph Chamberlain and Arthur Balfour]]'' by [[Sydney Prior Hall]]. In 1892, Chamberlain became leader of the Liberal Unionists in the House of Commons, beginning a fruitful relationship with Conservative leader and future Prime Minister [[Arthur Balfour]] (right).]]
Chamberlain became concerned about the threat of socialism during this period, although the [[Independent Labour Party]] had only one MP, [[Keir Hardie]]. He sought to divert collectivist energy toward Unionism and continued to propose radical reforms to the Conservatives. In his 1893 "Memorandum of a Programme for Social Reform", Chamberlain made a number of suggestions to Salisbury, including old age pensions, the provision of home loans to the working class, an amendment to the [[Artisans' and Labourers' Dwellings Improvement Act 1875]] to encourage street improvements, compensation for industrial accidents, reduced train fares for workers, tighter border controls, and shorter working hours. Salisbury was guardedly sympathetic. Chamberlain also wrote an unpublished 1895 play, ''The Game of Politics'', characterising socialists as the instigators of class conflict.{{sfn|Jay|1981|p=179}}

On 21 June 1895, the Liberal government was defeated on a motion that criticised the [[Henry Campbell-Bannerman]], [[Secretary of State for War]], for shortages of [[cordite]], and Salisbury was invited to form a government.<ref>{{cite book|author=Heather Gilbert|title=The Life of Lord Mount Stephen: 1691–1921|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1D0aAAAAMAAJ|year=1965|publisher=Aberdeen UP|page=89|isbn=9780900015380}}</ref>