Editing Islamophobia (section)

==Origins and causes==
{{See also|Criticism of Islam}}

===History of the term===

One early use cited as the term's first use is by the painter [[Étienne Dinet|Alphonse Étienne Dinet]] and [[Algeria]]n intellectual Sliman ben Ibrahim in their 1918 biography of Islam's prophet [[Muhammad]].<ref>{{cite book |title=La Vie de Mohammed, Prophète d'Allah |last1=Dinet |first1=Alphonse Étienne |last2=ben Ibrahim |first2=Sliman |year=1918 |location=Paris |publisher=Henri Piazza}} cited from {{Cite book|last1=Otterbeck |first1=Jonas |last2=Bevelander |first2=Pieter |year=2006 |title=Islamofobi&nbsp; – en studie av begreppet, ungdomars attityder och unga muslimars utsatthet |publisher=Forum för levande historia |location=Stockholm |language=sv |isbn=978-91-976073-6-0 |url=http://www.levandehistoria.se/files/islamofobi.pdf |access-date=23 November 2011 |quote=modern orientalists [are partially] influenced by an islamofobia, which is poorly reconciled with science and hardly worthy of our time |others=Anders Lange |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119025153/http://www.levandehistoria.se/files/islamofobi.pdf |archive-date=19 January 2012 }}</ref><ref name=Allen2010pp5-6>Allen, Christopher (2010). ''Islamophobia''. [[Ashgate Publishing]]. pp.&nbsp;5–6.</ref> Writing in French, they used the term ''{{Wikt-lang|fr|islamophobie}}''. Robin Richardson writes that in the English version of the book the word was not translated as "Islamophobia" but rather as "feelings inimical to Islam". Dahou Ezzerhouni has cited several other uses in French as early as 1910, and from 1912 to 1918.<ref>Ezzerhouni, Dahou. [http://www.algerie-focus.com/2010/02/03/lislamophobie-un-racisme-apparu-avec-les-colonisations/ "L'islamophobie, un racisme apparu avec les colonisations"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110417000408/http://www.algerie-focus.com/2010/02/03/lislamophobie-un-racisme-apparu-avec-les-colonisations/ |date=17 April 2011 }}, ''Algerie-Focus'', 3 February 2010. "Le mot serai ainsi apparu pour la première fois dans quelques ouvrages du début du XXème siècle. On peut citer entre autre « La politique musulmane dans l'Afrique Occidentale Française » d'Alain Quellien publié en 1910, suivi de quelques citations dans la ''[[Revue du monde musulman]]'' en 1912 et 1918, la Revue du Mercure de France en 1912, « Haut-Sénégal-Niger » de Maurice Delafosse en 1912 et dans le Journal of Theological Studies en 1924. L'année suivante, Etienne Dinet et Slimane Ben Brahim, employaient ce terme qui «conduit à l'aberration » dans leur ouvrage « L'Orient vu par l'Occident »."</ref> These early uses of the term did not, according to [[Chris Allen (academic)|Christopher Allen]], have the same meaning as in contemporary usage, as they described a fear of Islam by [[Liberalism and progressivism within Islam|liberal Muslims]] and [[Islamic feminism|Muslim feminists]], rather than a fear or dislike/hatred of Muslims by non-Muslims.<ref name=Allen2010pp5-6/><ref name=Allen2007>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.isn.ethz.ch/isn/Digital-Library/Publications/Detail/?ots591=0c54e3b3-1e9c-be1e-2c24-a6a8c7060233&lng=en&id=45668|title=Islamophobia and its Consequences|author=Chris Allen|journal=European Islam|year=2007|pages=144–67|author-link=Chris Allen (academic)}}</ref> On the other hand, Fernando Bravo López argues that Dinet and ibn Sliman's use of the term was as a criticism of overly hostile attitudes to Islam by a Belgian orientalist, Henri Lammens, whose project they saw as a "'pseudo-scientific crusade in the hope of bringing Islam down once and for all.{{'"}} He also notes that an early definition of Islamophobia appears in the 1910 Ph.D. thesis of Alain Quellien, a French colonial bureaucrat:
<blockquote>For some, the Muslim is the natural and irreconcilable enemy of the Christian and the European; Islam is the negation of civilization, and barbarism, bad faith and cruelty are the best one can expect from the Mohammedans.</blockquote>
Furthermore, he notes that Quellien's work draws heavily on the work of the French colonial department's 1902–06 administrator, who published a work in 1906, which to a great extent mirrors [[John Esposito]]'s ''The Islamic Threat: Myth or Reality?''.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Bravo López | first1 = F. | title = Towards a definition of Islamophobia: Approximations of the early twentieth century | doi = 10.1080/01419870.2010.528440 | journal = Ethnic and Racial Studies | volume = 34 | issue = 4 | pages = 556–73 | year = 2011 | s2cid = 217534342 | url = https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00645104/file/PEER_stage2_10.1080%252F01419870.2010.528440.pdf }}</ref>

The first recorded use of the term in English, according to the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'', was in 1923 in an article in ''[[The Journal of Theological Studies]]''.<ref name=OED/> The term entered into common usage with the publication of the Runnymede Trust's report in 1997.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Otterbeck |first1=Jonas |last2=Bevelander |first2=Pieter |year=2006 |title=Islamofobi&nbsp; – en studie av begreppet, ungdomars attityder och unga muslimars utsatthet |publisher=Forum för levande historia |location=Stockholm |language=sv |isbn=978-91-976073-6-0 |url=http://www.levandehistoria.se/files/islamofobi.pdf |access-date=23 November 2011 |others=Anders Lange |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119025153/http://www.levandehistoria.se/files/islamofobi.pdf |archive-date=19 January 2012 }}</ref> "Kofi Annan asserted at a 2004 conference entitled "Confronting Islamophobia" that the word Islamophobia had to be coined in order to "take account of increasingly widespread bigotry".<ref Name=Annan>[[Kofi Annan|Annan, Kofi]]. [https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2004/sgsm9637.doc.htm "Secretary-General, addressing headquarters seminar Wed Confronting Islamophobia"], [[United Nations]], press release, 7 December 2004.</ref>

=== Increase in Islamophobia during 1990s ===
{{See also|Bosnian genocide}}
During the [[Yugoslav Wars]] in the 1990s, far-right Serbian Orthodox Christian militants who were heavily indoctrinated with Islamophobic sentiments, perpetrated a genocide against [[Bosniaks|Bosniak Muslims]]. Since 1989, Serbian leader [[Slobodan Milošević]] publicly disseminated Islamophobic rhetoric throughout [[Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]], inciting [[Far right in Serbia|Serbian far-right]] militants to massacre Bosniak Muslims.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Baboulias |first=Yiannis |date=1 April 2019 |title=The Balkans Are the World Capital of Islamophobia |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/04/01/the-balkans-are-the-world-capital-of-islamophobia/ |work=Foreign Policy}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Sabic-El-Rayess |first=Amra |date=1 Oct 2020 |title= Today's America reminds me of 1990s Bosnia and Herzegovina |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2020/10/1/from-90s-bosnia-to-mordern-dayhistory-repeats-itself |work=Al Jazeera}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Najib |first=Kawtar |title=Spatialized Islamophobia |publisher=Routledge |year=2022 |isbn=978-0-367-89478-8 |location=New York |pages=32}}</ref>

The stereotyping of Bosniak Muslims as a hostile force threatening Europe with "terrorism" in Serbian propaganda was closely linked to the rise of Islamophobic narratives in [[Western media]] and [[European politics|European political]] discourse.{{sfn|Miles|Brown|2003|p=164, 165}}

===Contrasting views on Islam===
The Runnymede report contrasted "open" and "closed" views of Islam, and stated that the following "closed" views are equated with Islamophobia:<ref name="Runnymede1997">{{cite web |url= http://www.runnymedetrust.org/uploads/publications/pdfs/islamophobia.pdf |title= Islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All |access-date= 7 May 2014 |archive-date= 26 September 2007 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070926002939/http://www.runnymedetrust.org/uploads/publications/pdfs/islamophobia.pdf }}&nbsp;{{small|(69.7&nbsp;KB)}}, ''Runnymede Trust'', 1997.</ref>

:#Islam is seen as a monolithic bloc, static and unresponsive to change.
:#It is seen as separate and "other". It does not have values in common with other cultures, is not affected by them and does not influence them.
:#It is seen as inferior to the West. It is seen as barbaric, irrational, primitive, and [[sexist]].
:#It is seen as violent, aggressive, threatening, supportive of [[terrorism]], and engaged in a [[clash of civilizations]].
:#It is seen as a political [[ideology]], used for political or military advantage.
:#Criticisms made of "the West" by Muslims are rejected out of hand.
:#Hostility towards Islam is used to justify discriminatory practices towards Muslims and exclusion of Muslims from mainstream society.
:#Anti-Muslim hostility is seen as natural and normal.

These "closed" views are contrasted, in the report, with "open" views on Islam which, while founded on respect for Islam, permit legitimate disagreement, dialogue and critique.{{sfn|Benn|Jawad|2003|p=162}} According to Benn and Jawad, The Runnymede Trust notes that anti-Muslim discourse is increasingly seen as respectable, providing examples on how hostility towards Islam and Muslims is accepted as normal, even among those who may actively challenge other prevalent forms of discrimination.{{sfn|Benn|Jawad|2003|p=165}}

===Identity politics===
It has been suggested that Islamophobia is closely related to [[identity politics]], and gives its adherents the perceived benefit of constructing their identity in opposition to a negative, essentialized image of Muslims. This occurs in the form of self-righteousness, assignment of blame and key identity markers.<ref name="doving1">{{cite journal |last1=Døving |first1=Cora Alexa |year=2010 |title=Anti-Semitism and Islamophobia: A Comparison of Imposed Group Identities |journal=Tidsskrift for Islamforskning |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=52–76 |doi=10.7146/tifo.v4i2.24596 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Davina Bhandar writes that:<ref name="Bhandar">{{Cite journal | last1 = Bhandar | first1 = D. | title = Cultural politics: Disciplining citizenship | doi = 10.1080/13621021003731963 | journal = Citizenship Studies | volume = 14 | issue = 3 | pages = 331–43 | year = 2010 | s2cid = 146490574 }}</ref>

{{Blockquote|text=[...] the term 'cultural' has become synonymous with the category of the ethnic or minority [...]. It views culture as an entity that is highly abstracted from the practices of daily life and therefore represents the illusion that there exists a spirit of the people. This formulation leads to the homogenisation of cultural identity and the ascription of particular values and proclivities onto minority cultural groups.}}

She views this as an [[ontology|ontological]] trap that hinders the perception of culture as something "materially situated in the living practices of the everyday, situated in time-space and not based in abstract projections of what constitutes either a particular tradition or culture."

In some societies, Islamophobia has materialized due to the portrayal of Islam and Muslims as the national "[[Other (philosophy)|Other]]", where exclusion and discrimination occurs on the basis of their religion and civilization which differs with national tradition and identity. Examples include Pakistani and Algerian migrants in Britain and France respectively.{{sfn|Poole|2003|p=216}}{{sfn|Miles|Brown|2003|p=163}} This sentiment, according to Malcolm Brown and Robert Miles, significantly interacts with [[racism]], although Islamophobia itself is not racism.{{sfn|Miles|Brown|2003|p=163}}{{sfn|Miles|Brown|2003|p=164}} Author [[Doug Saunders]] has drawn parallels between [[Islamophobia in the United States]] and its older [[Anti-Catholicism in the United States|discrimination and hate against Roman Catholics]], saying that Catholicism was seen as backwards and imperial, while Catholic immigrants had poorer education and some were responsible for crime and terrorism.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Saunders|first=Doug|author-link=Doug Saunders|date=2012-09-17|title=Opinion: Catholics Then, Muslims Now|language=en-US|work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/09/18/opinion/catholics-then-muslims-now.html|access-date=2014-02-18|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>{{sfn|Haddad|2002|p=19}}<ref>''Islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All (Summary)'', Runnymede Trust, 1997, p. 1, cited in {{cite book |last=Quraishi |first=Muzammil |title=Muslims and crime: a comparative study |publisher=[[Ashgate Publishing]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7546-4233-6 |location=Aldershot, Hants, England |page=60}}</ref>

Brown and Miles write that another feature of Islamophobic discourse is to amalgamate nationality (e.g. Saudi), religion (Islam), and politics (terrorism, fundamentalism)&nbsp;– while most other religions are not associated with terrorism, or even "ethnic or national distinctiveness".{{sfn|Miles|Brown|2003|p=163}} They feel that "many of the stereotypes and misinformation that contribute to the articulation of Islamophobia are rooted in a particular perception of Islam", such as the notion that Islam promotes terrorism&nbsp;– especially prevalent after the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]].{{sfn|Miles|Brown|2003|p=166}}

The two-way stereotyping resulting from Islamophobia has in some instances resulted in mainstreaming of earlier controversial discourses, such as liberal attitudes towards gender equality<ref name="doving1"/><ref name="Bhandar"/> and homosexuals.<ref name=Mepschen2010>{{Cite journal | last1 = Mepschen | first1 = P. | last2 = Duyvendak | first2 = J. W. | last3 = Tonkens | first3 = E. H. | doi = 10.1177/0038038510375740 | title = Sexual Politics, Orientalism and Multicultural Citizenship in the Netherlands | journal = Sociology | volume = 44 | issue = 5 | pages = 962–79 | year = 2010 | s2cid = 85645153 }}</ref> Christina Ho has warned against framing of such mainstreaming of gender equality in a [[colonialism|colonial]], [[paternalism|paternal]] discourse, arguing that this may undermine minority women's ability to speak out about their concerns.<ref name=Ho2007>{{Cite journal | last = Ho | first = Christina | title = Muslim women's new defenders: Women's rights, nationalism and Islamophobia in contemporary Australia | journal = [[Women's Studies International Forum]] | volume = 30 | issue = 4 | pages = 290–98 | doi = 10.1016/j.wsif.2007.05.002 | date = July–August 2007 | hdl = 10453/3255 | url = https://opus.lib.uts.edu.au/bitstream/10453/3255/3/2006009025.pdf | hdl-access = free }}</ref>

[[Steven Salaita]] contends that, since 9/11, [[Arab Americans]] have evolved from what Nadine Naber described as an invisible group in the United States into a highly visible community that directly or indirectly has an effect on the United States' culture wars, foreign policy, presidential elections and legislative tradition.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = https://muse.jhu.edu/article/209750/summary|title = Beyond Orientalism and Islamophobia: 9/11, Anti-Arab Racism, and the Mythos of National Pride|last = Salaita|first = Steven|date = Fall 2006|journal = CR: The New Centennial Review|doi = 10.1353/ncr.2007.0011|access-date = 20 November 2015|issue = 2|volume = 6|pages = 245–266|s2cid = 143847106}}</ref>

The academics S. Sayyid and Abdoolkarim Vakil maintain that Islamophobia is a response to the emergence of a distinct Muslim public identity globally, the presence of Muslims in itself not being an indicator of the degree of Islamophobia in a society. Sayyid and Vakil maintain that there are societies where virtually no Muslims live but many institutionalized forms of Islamophobia still exist in them.<ref name=Sayyid&Vakil>{{cite book |last1=Sayyid |first1=Salman |author-link=Salman Sayyid |last2=Vakil |first2=Abdoolkarim |year=2010 |title=Thinking Through Islamophobia: Global Perspectives |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=glHhHIaCm9AC |location=New York |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |page=319 |isbn=9780231702065}}</ref>

===Links to ideologies===
[[File:CPA DSC05617 (14603953826).jpg|thumb|The [[2014 anti-Muslim riots in Sri Lanka]] followed rallies by [[Bodu Bala Sena]] (BBS), a hard-line Buddhist group.]]
[[File:Pastor Terry Jones Marching in DC (5497386725).jpg|thumb|An anti-Islam protest in the United States]]

Cora Alexa Døving, a senior scientist at the Norwegian [[Center for Studies of the Holocaust and Religious Minorities (Norway)|Center for Studies of the Holocaust and Religious Minorities]], argues that there are significant similarities between Islamophobic discourse and European pre-Nazi antisemitism.<ref name="doving1"/> Among the concerns are imagined threats of minority growth and domination, threats to traditional institutions and customs, skepticism of integration, threats to [[secularism]], fears of sexual crimes, fears of [[misogyny]], fears based on historical cultural inferiority, hostility to modern Western [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] values, etc.

{{ill|Matti Bunzl|de}} has argued that there are important differences between Islamophobia and antisemitism. While antisemitism was a phenomenon closely connected to European [[nation-building]] processes, he sees Islamophobia as having the concern of European civilization as its focal point.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Anti-semitism and Islamophobia: hatreds old and new in Europe |last=Bunzl |first=Matti |year=2007 |publisher=Prickly Paradigm Press |location=Chicago |isbn=978-0-9761475-8-9 |page=13 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=37UsAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Islamophobic+claims%22 |access-date=23 November 2011}}</ref> Døving, on the other hand, maintains that, at least in Norway, the Islamophobic discourse has a clear national element.<ref name="doving1"/> In a reply to Bunzl, French scholar of Jewish history, [[Esther Benbassa]], agrees with him in that he draws a clear connection between modern hostile and essentializing sentiments towards Muslims and historical antisemitism. However, she argues against the use of the term ''Islamophobia'', since, in her opinion, it attracts unwarranted attention to an underlying racist current.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Anti-Semitism and Islamophobia: Hatred Old and New in Europe |chapter=Xenophobia, Anti-Semitism, and Racism |last=Benbassa |first=Esther |year=2007 |publisher=Prickly Paradigm Press |location=Chicago |isbn=978-0-9761475-8-9 |pages=86ff |chapter-url=http://www.estherbenbassa.net/SCANS/XENOPHOBIA.PDF |access-date=23 November 2011 |editor-last=Bunzl |editor-first=Matti}}</ref>

The head of the Media Responsibility Institute in [[Erlangen]], Sabine Schiffer, and researcher Constantin Wagner, who also define Islamophobia as anti-Muslim racism, outline additional similarities and differences between Islamophobia and antisemitism.<ref name =schiffer>{{Cite journal | last1 = Schiffer | first1 = S. | last2 = Wagner | first2 = C. | doi = 10.1177/0306396810389927 | title = Anti-Semitism and Islamophobia – new enemies, old patterns | journal = Race & Class | volume = 52 | issue = 3 | pages = 77–84 | year = 2011 | s2cid = 146753309 }}</ref> They point out the existence of equivalent notions such as "Judaisation/Islamisation", and metaphors such as "a state within a state" are used in relation to both Jews and Muslims. In addition, both discourses make use of, among other rhetorical instruments, "religious imperatives" supposedly "proven" by religious sources, and conspiracy theories.

The differences between Islamophobia and antisemitism consist of the nature of the perceived threats to the "[[Christian West]]". Muslims are perceived as "inferior" and as a visible "external threat", while on the other hand, Jews are perceived as "omnipotent" and as an invisible "internal threat". However, Schiffer and Wagner also note that there is a growing tendency to view Muslims as a privileged group that constitute an "internal threat" and that this convergence between the two discources makes "it more and more necessary to use findings from the study of anti-Semitism to analyse Islamophobia". Schiffer and Wagner conclude,

{{Blockquote|The achievement in the study of anti-Semitism of examining Jewry and anti-Semitism separately must also be transferred to other racisms, such as Islamophobia. We do not need more information about Islam, but more information about the making of racist stereotypes in general.}}

The publication ''Social Work and Minorities: European Perspectives'' describes Islamophobia as the new form of racism in Europe,{{sfn|Williams|Soydan|Johnson|1998|p=182}} arguing that "Islamophobia is as much a form of racism as [[anti-semitism]], a term more commonly encountered in Europe as a sibling of racism, xenophobia and intolerance."{{sfn|Williams|Soydan|Johnson|1998|p=22}} [[Edward Said]] considers Islamophobia as it is evinced in [[Orientalism]] to be a trend in a more general antisemitic Western tradition.<ref>Edward W. Said, 'Orientalism Reconsidered' in Francis Barker, Peter Hulme, Margaret Iversen, Diana Loxley (eds),'' Literature, Politics, and Theory,'' Methuen & Co, London 1986 pp. 210229, pp. 220ff.</ref><ref>[[Bryan S. Turner (sociologist)|Bryan Stanley Turner]], introd. to Bryan S. Turner (ed.) ''Orientalism: Early Sources'', (Vol 1, Readings in Orientalism), Routledge, London (2000) reprint 2002 p. 12</ref> Others note that there has been a transition from anti-Asian and anti-Arab racism to anti-Muslim racism,<ref>[http://jos.sagepub.com/content/43/1/61.abstract The resistible rise of Islamophobia – Anti-Muslim racism in the UK and Australia before 11 September 2001], [[Journal of Sociology]] March 2007 vol. 43 no. 1 61–86</ref> while some note a racialization of religion.<ref>[https://www.ssoar.info/ssoar/bitstream/handle/document/23061/ssoar-ethnicities-2007-4-dunn_et_al-contemporary_racism_and_islamaphobia_in.pdf?sequence=1 Contemporary racism and Islamaphobia in Australia – Racializing religion], Ethnicities December 2007 vol. 7 no. 4 564–589</ref>

According to a 2012 report by a UK anti-racism group, [[counterjihad|counter-jihadist]] outfits in Europe and North America are becoming more cohesive by forging alliances, with 190 groups now identified as promoting an Islamophobic agenda.<ref name = "MaTo 14Apr2012">{{cite news |url= https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/apr/14/breivik-trial-norway-mass-murderer |title= Far-right anti-Muslim network on rise globally as Breivik trial opens |author= Mark Townsend |date= 14 April 2012 |work= guardian.co.uk |access-date= 15 April 2012 |location=London}}</ref> In ''Islamophobia and its consequences on young people'' (p.&nbsp;6) Ingrid Ramberg writes "Whether it takes the shape of daily forms of racism and discrimination or more violent forms, Islamophobia is a violation of human rights and a threat to social cohesion." Professor [[John Esposito]] of [[Georgetown University]] calls Islamophobia "the new anti-Semitism".<ref name="thestar.com">{{cite news| url=https://www.thestar.com/news/insight/article/1055298--islamophobia-the-new-anti-semitism |title=Islamophobia: The new anti-Semitism| location=Toronto | work=The Star}}</ref>

In their 2018 American Muslim Poll, the Institute for Social Policy and Understanding found that when it came to their Islamophobia index (see Public Opinion), they found that those who scored higher on the index, (i.e. more islamophobic) were, "associated with 1) greater acceptance of targeting civilians, whether it is a military or individual/small group that is doling out the violence, 2) greater acquiescence to limiting both press freedoms and institutional checks following a hypothetical terror attack, and 3) greater support for the so-called "Muslim ban" and the surveillance of American mosques (or their outright building prohibition)."<ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=https://www.ispu.org/american-muslim-poll-2018-full-report/|title=American Muslim Poll 2018: Full Report {{!}} ISPU|date=2018-04-30|website=Institute for Social Policy and Understanding|language=en-US|access-date=2018-12-05}}</ref>

[[Mohamed Nimer]] compares Islamophobia with anti-Americanism. He argues that while both Islam and America can be subject to legitimate criticisms without detesting a people as a whole, bigotry against both are on the rise.<ref name="NimerA">{{cite book|title=Islamophobia: The Challenge of Pluralism in the 21st Century|editor=[[John L. Esposito]]|author=Mohamed Nimer|year=2011|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0199753642|page=[https://archive.org/details/islamop_xxx_2011_00_7922/page/76 76]|url=https://archive.org/details/islamop_xxx_2011_00_7922/page/76}}</ref>

[[Gideon Rachman]] wrote in 2019 of a "[[Clash of Civilizations|clash of civilizations]]" between Muslim and non-Muslim nations, linking anti-Islam [[Radicalization|radicalisation]] outside the Muslim world to the rise of intolerant [[Islamism]] in some Muslim countries that used to be relatively free from that ideology.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Gideon Rachman|date=February 18, 2019|title=Islamophobia and the new clash of civilisations|work=[[Financial Times]]|url=https://www.ft.com/content/12cf16a0-335d-11e9-bb0c-42459962a812|archive-url=https://archive.today/20210914032325/https://www.ft.com/content/12cf16a0-335d-11e9-bb0c-42459962a812%23comments-anchor|archive-date=2021-09-14}}</ref>

[[Islam and blasphemy|Blasphemy of Islam]] has been described as Islamophobia, while some countries consider [[blasphemy]] legal as [[freedom of speech]].<ref name="n746">{{cite journal | last1=Í Skorini | first1=Heini | last2=Dyrberg | first2=Torben Bech | title=Framing Blasphemy as a crime: the curious similarities between the secular left and the organization of Islamic cooperation | journal=Journal of Political Ideologies | date=17 February 2022 | volume=29 | issue=3 | issn=1356-9317 | doi=10.1080/13569317.2022.2040878 | pages=550–570}}</ref>

===Opposition to multiculturalism===
According to Gabrielle Maranci, the increasing Islamophobia in the West is related to a rising [[Criticism of multiculturalism|repudiation of multiculturalism]]. Maranci concludes that "Islamophobia is a 'phobia' of multiculturalism and the transruptive effect that Islam can have in Europe and the West through transcultural processes."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Marranci |first1=Gabriele |title=Multiculturalism, Islam and the clash of civilisations theory: rethinking Islamophobia |journal=Culture and Religion |date=March 2004 |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=116''ff'' |doi=10.1080/0143830042000200373|s2cid=55652492 }}</ref>