Editing Horn of Africa (section)

===Middle Ages and Early Modern era===
{{main|Adal Sultanate|Ajuran Sultanate|Isaaq Sultanate|Ethiopian Empire|Sultanate of Showa|Sultanate of Ifat|Sultanate of the Geledi|Zagwe dynasty|Sultanate of Mogadishu|Aussa Sultanate|Majeerteen Sultanate|Sultanate of Hobyo| Khedivate's Somali Coast|Ottoman Zeila
}}
{{further|History of Africa#Horn of Africa}}

During the [[Middle Ages]], several powerful empires dominated the regional trade in the Horn, including the [[Adal Sultanate]], the [[Ajuran Sultanate]], the [[Ethiopian Empire]], the [[Zagwe dynasty]], and the [[Sultanate of the Geledi]].

The [[Sultanate of Showa]], established in 896, was one of the oldest local [[Islam]]ic states. It was centered in the former [[Shewa]] province in central Ethiopia. The polity was succeeded by the [[Sultanate of Ifat]] around 1285. Ifat was governed from its capital at [[Zeila]] in Somaliland and was the easternmost district of the former Shewa Sultanate.<ref name=C1>{{cite book|author-link=Nehemia Levtzion|author1=Nehemia Levtzion|author2=Randall Pouwels|title=The History of Islam in Africa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J1Ipt5A9mLMC&pg=PA228|year=2000|publisher=Ohio University Press|isbn=978-0-8214-4461-0|page=228|access-date=11 November 2016|archive-date=22 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240522141259/https://books.google.com/books?id=J1Ipt5A9mLMC&pg=PA228#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[Adal Sultanate]] was a medieval multi-ethnic [[Muslim]] state centered in the Horn region. At its height, it controlled large parts of Somalia, Ethiopia, Djibouti and Eritrea. Many of the historic cities in the region, such as [[Amud]], [[Maduna]], [[Abasa, Somalia|Abasa]], [[Berbera]], [[Zeila]] and [[Harar]], flourished during the kingdom's golden age. This period that left behind numerous [[courtyard|courtyard houses]], [[mosque]]s, [[shrine]]s and [[defensive wall|walled enclosures]]. Under the leadership of rulers such as [[Sabr ad-Din II]], [[Mansur ad-Din of Adal|Mansur ad-Din]], [[Jamal ad-Din II]], [[Shams ad-Din ibn Muhammad|Shams ad-Din]], General [[Mahfuz]] and [[Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi]], Adalite armies continued the struggle against the [[Solomonic dynasty]], a campaign historically known as the [[Abyssinian–Adal War|Conquest of Abyssinia]] or ''Futuh al Habash''.

[[File:Gondereshe2008.jpg|thumb|left|The [[citadel]] in [[Gondershe]], an important city in the medieval [[Ajuran Sultanate]]]]

Through a strong centralized administration and an aggressive military stance towards invaders, the [[Ajuran Sultanate]] successfully resisted an [[Oromo people|Oromo]] invasion from the west and a [[Portugal|Portuguese]] incursion from the east during the [[Gaal Madow]] and the [[Ajuran Sultanate#Ajuran-Portuguese battles|Ajuran-Portuguese wars]]. Trading routes dating from the ancient and early medieval periods of [[Maritime history of Somalia|Somali maritime enterprise]] were also strengthened or re-established, and the state left behind an extensive [[Somali architecture|architectural legacy]]. Many of the hundreds of ruined castles and fortresses that dot the landscape of Somalia today are attributed to Ajuran engineers,<ref>Shaping of Somali Society pg 101</ref> including a lot of the [[pillar tomb]] fields, [[necropolis]]es and ruined cities built during that era. The royal family, the [[House of Gareen]], also expanded its territories and established its hegemonic rule through a skillful combination of warfare, trade linkages and alliances.<ref>Horn and Crescent: Cultural Change and Traditional Islam on the East African Coast, 800–1900 (African Studies) by Pouwels, Randall L.. pg 15</ref>

The [[Zagwe dynasty]] ruled many parts of modern Ethiopia and Eritrea from approximately 1137 to 1270. The name of the dynasty comes from the [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]]-speaking [[Agaw people]] of northern Ethiopia. From 1270 onwards for many centuries, the [[Solomonic dynasty]] ruled the [[Ethiopian Empire]].

In 1270, the [[Amharas|Amhara]] nobleman [[Yekuno Amlak]], who claimed descent from the last [[Kingdom of Aksum|Aksumite]] king and ultimately the [[Queen of Sheba]], overthrew the [[Agaw people|Agaw]] [[Zagwe dynasty]] at the [[Battle of Ansata]], ushering his reign as [[Emperor of Ethiopia]]. While initially a rather small and politically unstable entity, the empire managed to expand significantly during the [[crusades]] of [[Amda Seyon I]] (1314–1344) and his successors, becoming the dominant force in [[East Africa]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Erlikh |first1=Hagai |title=The Nile Histories, Cultures, Myths |year=2000 |publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers |page=41 |isbn=9781555876722 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LcsJosc239YC&dq=eleni+hadiya+princess&pg=PA41 |access-date=19 December 2023 |archive-date=22 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240522141703/https://books.google.com/books?id=LcsJosc239YC&dq=eleni+hadiya+princess&pg=PA41#v=onepage&q=eleni%20hadiya%20princess&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hassen |first1=Mohammed |title=Oromo of Ethiopia with special emphasis on the Gibe region |publisher=University of London |page=22 |url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/29226/1/10731321.pdf |access-date=4 November 2023 |archive-date=13 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200213003344/https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/29226/1/10731321.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:Lalibela_Église_Bet_Giyorgis.JPG|thumb|The [[Lalibela]] churches carved by the [[Zagwe dynasty]] in the 12th century]]

In the early 15th century, Ethiopia sought to make diplomatic contact with European kingdoms for the first time since Aksumite times. A letter from King [[Henry IV of England]] to the Emperor of Abyssinia survives.<ref>Ian Mortimer, ''The Fears of Henry IV'' (2007), p. 111</ref> In 1428, the Emperor [[Yeshaq I of Ethiopia|Yeshaq]] sent two emissaries to [[Alfonso V of Aragon]], who sent return emissaries who failed to complete the return trip.<ref name="Beshah">[[#Beshah|Beshah & Aregay (1964)]], pp. 13–14.</ref>

The first continuous relations with a European country began in 1508 with Portugal under Emperor [[Dawit II of Ethiopia|Lebna Dengel]], who had just inherited the throne from his father.<ref>[[#Beshah|Beshah & Aregay (1964)]], p. 25.</ref> This proved to be an important development, for when Abyssinia was subjected to the attacks of the [[Adal Sultanate]] General and [[Imam]] [[Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi]] (called "''Gurey''" or "''Grañ''", both meaning "the Left-handed"), Portugal assisted the Ethiopian emperor by sending weapons and four hundred men, who helped his son [[Gelawdewos of Ethiopia|Gelawdewos]] defeat Ahmad and re-establish his rule.<ref>[[#Beshah|Beshah & Aregay (1964)]], pp. 45–52.</ref> This [[Abyssinian–Adal War|Ethiopian–Adal War]] was also one of the first proxy wars in the region as the [[Ottoman Empire]], and Portugal took sides in the conflict.

[[File:Fakr Ud Din Mosque.jpg|thumb|left|Engraving of the 13th century [[Fakr ad-Din Mosque]] built by Fakr ad-Din, the first Sultan of the [[Sultanate of Mogadishu]]]]

When Emperor [[Susenyos of Ethiopia|Susenyos]] converted to [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]] in 1624, years of revolt and civil unrest followed resulting in thousands of deaths.<ref>[[#Beshah|Beshah & Aregay (1964)]], pp. 91, 97–104.</ref> The [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] missionaries had offended the Orthodox faith of the local Ethiopians. On 25 June 1632, Susenyos's son, Emperor [[Fasilides of Ethiopia|Fasilides]], declared the state religion to again be [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity]], and expelled the Jesuit missionaries and other Europeans.<ref>[[#Beshah|Beshah & Aregay (1964)]], p. 105.</ref><ref>van Donzel, Emeri, "Fasilädäs" in Siegbert Uhlig, ed., ''Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: D-Ha'' (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2005), p. 500.</ref>

During the end of 18th and the beginning of 19th century the Yejju dynasty (more specifically, the Warasek) ruled north Ethiopia changing the official language of Amhara people to Afaan Oromo, including inside the court of Gondar which was capital of the empire. Founded by [[Ali I of Yejju]] several successive descendants of him and [[Abba Seru Gwangul]] ruled with their army coming from mainly their clan the [[Yejju Oromo tribe]] as well as Wollo and Raya Oromo.<ref>Pankhurst, Richard, ''The Ethiopian Royal Chronicles'', (London:Oxford University Press, 1967), pp. 139–43.</ref>

[[File:ST-Massowa.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|The port of [[Massawa]], Eritrea, founded by the Arabs and later modernized and expanded [[Italian Eritrea|by the Italians]], in a 19th-century engraving]]
[[File:Hobyo Sultanate Cavalry And Fort.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|The [[Sultanate of Hobyo]]'s [[cavalry]] and fort]]

The [[Sultanate of the Geledi]] was a Somali kingdom administered by the Gobroon dynasty, which ruled parts of the Horn of Africa during the 18th and 19th centuries. It was established by the Ajuran soldier [[Ibrahim Adeer]], who had defeated various [[vassal]]s of the Ajuran Empire and established the ''House of Gobroon''. The [[dynasty]] reached its apex under the successive reigns of Sultan [[Yusuf Mahamud Ibrahim]], who successfully consolidated Gobroon power during the [[Bardera|Bardera wars]], and Sultan [[Ahmed Yusuf (Gobroon)|Ahmed Yusuf]], who forced regional powers such as the [[Oman|Omani Empire]] to submit [[tribute]].

The [[Isaaq Sultanate]] was a [[Somali people|Somali]] kingdom that ruled parts of the Horn of Africa during the 18th and 19th centuries. It spanned the territories of the [[Isaaq]] clan, descendants of the [[Banu Hashim]] clan,<ref name="Lewisapd">I. M. Lewis, ''A pastoral democracy: a study of pastoralism and politics among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa'', (LIT Verlag Münster: 1999), p. 157.</ref> in modern-day [[Somaliland]] and [[Ethiopia]]. The sultanate was governed by the [[Guled Dynasty|Reer Guled]] branch of the [[Eidagale]] sub-clan established by the first sultan, Sultan [[Guled Abdi (Sultan)|Guled Abdi]]. The sultanate is the pre-colonial predecessor to the modern [[Somaliland]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Taariikhda Beerta Suldaan Cabdilaahi ee Hargeysa {{!}} Somalidiasporanews.com|url=http://www.qurbejoog.com/taariikhda-beerta-suldaan-cabdilaahi-ee-hargeysa/|access-date=9 January 2021|language=en-US|archive-date=19 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210219181303/http://www.qurbejoog.com/taariikhda-beerta-suldaan-cabdilaahi-ee-hargeysa/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Genealogies of the Somal|date=1896|publisher=Eyre and Spottiswoode (London)|language=english}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Taariikhda Saldanada Reer Guuleed Ee Somaliland.Abwaan:Ibraahim-rashiid Cismaan Guure (aboor). {{!}} Togdheer News Network|url=http://togdheernews.com/articles/31/05/2016/taariikhda-saldanada-reer-guuleed-ee-somaliland-abwaanibraahim-rashiid-cismaan-guure-aboor/|access-date=9 August 2021|language=en-US|archive-date=11 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210111020220/http://togdheernews.com/articles/31/05/2016/taariikhda-saldanada-reer-guuleed-ee-somaliland-abwaanibraahim-rashiid-cismaan-guure-aboor/|url-status=live}}</ref>

According to oral tradition, prior to the Guled dynasty the [[Isaaq]] clan-family were ruled by a dynasty of the Tolje'lo branch starting from, descendants of Ahmed nicknamed Tol Je'lo, the eldest son of [[Ishaaq bin Ahmed|Sheikh Ishaaq]]'s [[Harari people|Harari]] wife. There were eight Tolje'lo rulers in total, starting with Boqor Harun ({{Langx|so|Boqor Haaruun}}) who ruled the Isaaq Sultanate for centuries starting from the 13th century.<ref>{{Cite web|date=7 October 2017|title=Degmada Cusub Ee Dacarta Oo Loogu Wanqalay Munaasibad Kulmisay Madaxda Iyo Haldoorka Somaliland|url=https://www.hubaalmedia.net/degmada-cusub-ee-dacarta-oo-loogu-wanqalay-munaasibad-kulmisay-madaxda-iyo-haldoorka-somaliland/|access-date=11 August 2021|website=Hubaal Media|language=en-US|archive-date=11 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210811205734/https://www.hubaalmedia.net/degmada-cusub-ee-dacarta-oo-loogu-wanqalay-munaasibad-kulmisay-madaxda-iyo-haldoorka-somaliland/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Taariikhda Toljecle|url=https://www.tashiwanaag.com/toljecle-taariikh-ahaan.html|access-date=9 August 2021|website=www.tashiwanaag.com|archive-date=9 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210809022129/https://www.tashiwanaag.com/toljecle-taariikh-ahaan.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The last Tolje'lo ruler [[Garad]] Dhuh Barar ({{langx|so|Dhuux Baraar}}) was overthrown by a coalition of Isaaq clans. The once strong Tolje'lo clan were scattered and took refuge amongst the [[Habr Awal]] with whom they still mostly live.<ref>{{Citation|title=Taariikhda Boqortooyadii Axmed Sheikh Isaxaaq ee Toljecle 1787| date=23 February 2020 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6MfB4XvREbI|language=en|access-date=15 August 2021|archive-date=15 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815225220/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6MfB4XvREbI|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>NEW ISSUES IN REFUGEE RESEARCH Working Paper No. 65 Pastoral society and transnational refugees: population movements in Somaliland and eastern Ethiopia 1988 – 2000 Guido Ambroso, Table 1, pg.5</ref>

The [[Majeerteen Sultanate]] (Migiurtinia) was another prominent Somali sultanate based in the Horn region. Ruled by [[Boqor|King]] [[Osman Mahamuud]] during its golden age, it controlled much of northeastern and central Somalia in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The polity had all of the organs of an integrated modern state and maintained a robust trading network. It also entered into treaties with foreign powers and exerted strong centralized authority on the domestic front.<ref name="HOA">''Horn of Africa'', Volume 15, Issues 1–4, (Horn of Africa Journal: 1997), p.130.</ref><ref name="NEAS">Michigan State University. African Studies Center, Northeast African studies, Volumes 11–12, (Michigan State University Press: 1989), p.32.</ref> Much of the Sultanate's former domain is today coextensive with the autonomous [[Puntland]] region in northern Somalia.<ref name="IIA">Istituto italo-africano, ''[[Africa: Rivista trimestrale di studi e documentazione|Africa: rivista trimestrale di studi e documentazione]]'', Volume 56, (Edizioni africane: 2001), p.591.</ref>

The [[Sultanate of Hobyo]] was a 19th-century Somali kingdom founded by Sultan [[Yusuf Ali Kenadid]]. Initially, Kenadid's goal was to seize control of the neighboring Majeerteen Sultanate, which was then ruled by his cousin Boqor Osman Mahamuud. However, he was unsuccessful in this endeavor, and was eventually forced into exile in [[Yemen]]. A decade later, in the 1870s, Kenadid returned from the [[Arabian Peninsula]] with a band of [[Hadhramaut|Hadhrami]] [[musketeer]]s and a group of devoted lieutenants. With their assistance, he managed to establish the kingdom of Hobyo, which would rule much of northern and central Somalia during the early modern period.<ref name="Metz">[[Helen Chapin Metz]], ''Somalia: a country study'', (The Division: 1993), p.10.</ref>