Editing History of Libya (section)

==Ottoman Libya==
{{Main|Ottoman Libya}}
[[File:Capture of Tripoli by the Ottomans 1551.jpg|thumb|The [[Siege of Tripoli (1551)|Siege of Tripoli]] in 1551 allowed the Ottomans to capture the city from the Knights of St. John.]]
After a successful invasion by the [[House of Habsburg#Division of the house: Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs|Habsburgs of Spain]] in the early 16th century, [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] entrusted its defense to the Knights of St. John in Malta. Lured by the piracy that spread through the [[Maghreb]] coastline, adventurers such as [[Hayreddin Barbarossa|Barbarossa]] and his successors consolidated Ottoman control in the central Maghreb. The [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] Turks conquered Tripoli in 1551 under the command of Sinan Pasha. In the next year his successor [[Turgut Reis]] was named the [[Bey]] of Tripoli and later [[Pasha of Tripoli]] in 1556. As Pasha, he adorned and built up Tripoli, making it one of the most impressive cities along the North African coast.<ref>{{cite book |author=Naylor, Phillip Chiviges | title= North Africa: a history from antiquity to the present | publisher=University of Texas Press | year=2009 | pages=120–121 | isbn=9780292719224 | quote=One of the most famous corsairs was Turghut (Dragut) (?–1565), who was of Greek ancestry and a protégé of Khayr al-Din.&nbsp;... While pasha, he built up Tripoli and adorned it, making it one of the most impressive cities along the North African littoral.}}</ref> By 1565, administrative authority as regent in Tripoli was vested in a ''[[pasha]]'' appointed directly by the ''[[sultan]]'' in [[Constantinople]]. In the 1580s, the rulers of [[Fezzan]] gave their allegiance to the sultan, and although Ottoman authority was absent in Cyrenaica, a ''bey'' was stationed in Benghazi late in the next century to act as agent of the government in Tripoli.<ref name="be417" />

In time, real power came to rest with the pasha's corps of [[janissaries]], a self-governing military guild, and in time the pasha's role was reduced to that of ceremonial head of state.<ref name="be203" /> Mutinies and coups were frequent, and in 1611 the ''[[dey]]s'' staged a coup against the pasha, and Dey Sulayman Safar was appointed as head of government. For the next hundred years, a series of ''deys'' effectively ruled Tripolitania, some for only a few weeks, and at various times the dey was also pasha-regent. The regency governed by the dey was autonomous in internal affairs and, although dependent on the sultan for fresh recruits to the corps of janissaries, his government was left to pursue a virtually independent foreign policy as well. The two most important Deys were [[Mehmed Saqizli]] (r. 1631–49) and [[Osman Saqizli]] (r. 1649–72), both also Pasha, who ruled effectively the region.<ref name="be204">Bertarelli (1929), p. 204.</ref> The latter conquered also Cyrenaica.<ref name="be204" />

[[File:John Seller Elevation of Tripoli 1675.jpg|400px|thumb|left|An elevation of the city of Ottoman Tripoli in 1675]]
Tripoli was the only city of size in Ottoman Libya (then known as Tripolitania [[Eyalet]]) at the end of the 17th century and had a population of about 30,000. The bulk of its residents were [[Moors]], as city-dwelling Arabs were then known. Several hundred Turks and renegades formed a governing elite, a large portion of which were ''[[kouloughli]]s'' (lit. sons of servants—offspring of Turkish soldiers and Arab women); they identified with local interests and were respected by locals. Jews and [[Moriscos]] were active as merchants and craftsmen and a small number of European traders also frequented the city. European [[slave]]s and large numbers of enslaved blacks transported from Sudan were also a feature of everyday life in Tripoli. In 1551, Turgut Reis enslaved almost the entire population of the Maltese island of [[Gozo]], some 6,300 people, sending them to Libya.<ref>{{cite book|author=Robert C. Davis|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast, and Italy, 1500–1800|url=https://archive.org/details/trent_0116405722392|url-access=registration|access-date=31 May 2012|date=5 December 2003|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0-333-71966-4}}</ref> The most pronounced slavery activity involved the enslavement of black Africans who were brought via [[trans-Saharan trade]] routes. Even though the [[Slavery in Libya|slave trade]] was officially abolished in Tripoli in 1853, in practice it continued until the 1890s.<ref>Lisa Anderson, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/163044 "Nineteenth-Century Reform in Ottoman Libya"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161010185714/http://www.jstor.org/stable/163044|date=10 October 2016}}, International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 16, No. 3. (August 1984), pp. 325–348.</ref>

[[File:EnterpriseTripoli.jpg|thumb|USS ''[[USS Enterprise (1799)|Enterprise]]'' of the [[Mediterranean Squadron (United States)|Mediterranean Squadron]] capturing Tripolitan Corsair during the First Barbary War, 1801]]
Lacking direction from the Ottoman government, Tripoli lapsed into a period of military anarchy during which coup followed coup and few deys survived in office more than a year. One such [[1711 Karamanli coup|coup]] was led by Turkish officer [[Ahmed Karamanli]].<ref name="be204" /> The [[Karamanli dynasty|Karamanlis]] ruled from 1711 until 1735 mainly in Tripolitania, but had influence in Cyrenaica and Fezzan as well by the mid 18th century. Ahmed was a Janissary and popular cavalry officer.<ref name="be204" /> He murdered the Ottoman Dey of Tripolitania and seized the throne in 1711.<ref name="be204" /> After persuading Sultan [[Ahmed III]] to recognize him as governor, Ahmed established himself as pasha and made his post hereditary. Though Tripolitania continued to pay nominal tribute to the Ottoman [[padishah]], it otherwise acted as an independent kingdom. Ahmed greatly expanded his city's economy, particularly through the employment of corsairs ([[pirate]]s) on crucial [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] shipping routes; nations that wished to protect their ships from the corsairs were forced to pay tribute to the pasha. Ahmad's successors proved to be less capable than himself, however, the region's delicate balance of power allowed the Karamanli to survive several dynastic crises without invasion. The [[Libyan Civil War of 1791–1795]] occurred in those years. In 1793, [[Turkey|Turkish]] officer [[Trabluslu Ali Pasha|Ali Pasha]] deposed Hamet Karamanli and briefly restored Tripolitania to Ottoman rule. However, Hamet's brother [[Yusuf Karamanli|Yusuf]] (r. 1795–1832) reestablished Tripolitania's independence.

In the early 19th century war broke out between the United States and Tripolitania, and a series of battles ensued in what came to be known as the [[First Barbary War]] and the [[Second Barbary War]]. By 1819, the various treaties of the [[Napoleonic Wars]] had forced the Barbary states to give up piracy almost entirely, and Tripolitania's economy began to crumble. As Yusuf weakened, factions sprung up around his three sons; though Yusuf abdicated in 1832 in favor of his son Ali II, civil war soon resulted. Ottoman Sultan [[Mahmud II]] sent in troops ostensibly to restore order, but instead deposed and exiled Ali II, marking the end of both the Karamanli dynasty and an independent Tripolitania.<ref name="be205">Bertarelli (1929), p. 205.</ref> Anyway, order was not recovered easily, and the revolt of the Libyan under Abd-El-Gelil and Gûma ben Khalifa lasted until the death of the latter in 1858.<ref name="be205" />

The second period of direct Ottoman rule saw administrative changes, and what seemed as greater order in the governance of the three provinces of Libya. It would not be long before the [[Scramble for Africa]] and European colonial interests set their eyes on the marginal Turkish provinces of Libya. The Ottoman Sultan Abdulhamid II twice sent his aide-de-camp Azmzade Sadik El Mueyyed to meet Sheikh Senussi to cultivate positive relations and counter the West European scramble for Africa.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gökkent |first=Giyas Müeyyed |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b6CAzgEACAAJ |title=Journey in the Grand Sahara of Africa and Through Time |publisher=Menah |year=2021 |isbn=978-1-7371298-8-2 |language=en}}</ref> Reunification came about through the unlikely route of an invasion ([[Italo-Turkish War]], 1911–1912) and occupation starting from 1911 when [[Italy]] simultaneously turned the three regions into colonies.<ref>Country Profiles, (16 May 2006), [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/country_profiles/1398437.stm "Timeline: Libya, a chronology of key events"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111023080030/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/country_profiles/1398437.stm |date=23 October 2011 }} ''BBC News''. Retrieved 18 July 2006.</ref>