Editing History of Israel (section)

===Israel and Judah (Iron Age II)===
{{Main|Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)|Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Kingdom of Judah}}
{{multiple image
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| image1            = JRSLM 300116 Tel Dan Stele 01.jpg
| alt1              = The Tel Dan stele
| image2            = חירבת קייאפה(מבצר האלה) - זאב שטיין.jpg
| alt2              = Khirbet Qeiyafa
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| image3            = The 10th century Stepped Stone Structure-ViewC (3782447127).jpg
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| caption3          = The [[Stepped Stone Structure]], [[City of David (archaeological site)|City of David]], Jerusalem
| caption1          = The [[Tel Dan stele]] contains the earliest reference to the House of David
| caption2          = [[Khirbet Qeiyafa]], an early 10th century fortified city overlooking the [[Elah Valley]], associated by scholars with the kingdom of [[David]]
| alt3              = City of David
}}
In the 10th century BCE, the Israelite kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] and [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Israel]] emerged. The [[Hebrew Bible]] states that these were preceded by a [[Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)|single kingdom]] ruled by [[Saul]], [[David]] and [[Solomon]], who is said to have built the [[Solomon's Temple|First Temple]]. Archaeologists have debated whether the united monarchy ever existed,<ref name="United Monarchy debated" group="Notes">The debate is described in Amihai Mazar, "Archaeology and the Biblical Narrative: The Case of the United Monarchy" (see bibliography), p.29 fn.2: "For conservative approaches defining the United Monarchy as a state "from Dan to Beer Sheba" including "conquered kingdoms" (Ammon, Moab, Edom) and "spheres of influence" in Geshur and Hamath cf. e.g. Ahlström (1993), 455–542; Meyers (1998); Lemaire (1999); Masters (2001); Stager (2003); Rainey (2006), 159–168; Kitchen (1997); Millard (1997; 2008). For a total denial of the historicity of the United Monarchy cf. e.g. Davies (1992), 67–68; others suggested a 'chiefdom' comprising a small region around Jerusalem, cf. Knauf (1997), 81–85; Niemann (1997), 252–299 and Finkelstein (1999). For a 'middle of the road' approach suggesting a United Monarchy of larger territorial scope though smaller than the biblical description cf.e.g. Miller (1997); Halpern (2001), 229–262; Liverani (2005), 92–101. The latter recently suggested a state comprising the territories of Judah and Ephraim during the time of David, that was subsequently enlarged to include areas of northern Samaria and influence areas in the Galilee and Transjordan. Na'aman (1992; 1996) once accepted the basic biography of David as authentic and later rejected the United Monarchy as a state, cf. id. (2007), 401–402".</ref><ref name="garfinkel2012">{{cite web |last1=Garfinkel |first1=Yossi |last2=Ganor |first2=Sa'ar |last3=Hasel |first3=Michael |date=19 April 2012 |title=Journal 124: Khirbat Qeiyafa preliminary report |url=http://www.hadashot-esi.org.il/report_detail_eng.aspx?id=1989 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120623021750/http://www.hadashot-esi.org.il/report_detail_eng.aspx?id=1989 |archive-date=23 June 2012 |access-date=12 June 2018 |website=Hadashot Arkheologiyot: Excavations and Surveys in Israel |publisher=Israel Antiquities Authority |ref=garfinkel2012}}</ref><ref name="fink2012">{{cite journal |last1=Finkelstein |first1=Israel |last2=Fantalkin |first2=Alexander |date=May 2012 |title=Khirbet Qeiyafa: an unsensational archaeological and historical interpretation |url=http://archaeology.tau.ac.il/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/Qeiyafa_Unsensational_Interpretation.pdf |journal=Tel Aviv |volume=39 |pages=38–63 |doi=10.1179/033443512x13226621280507 |access-date=12 June 2018 |ref=finkelsteinfantalkin2012 |s2cid=161627736 |archive-date=13 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230213094447/http://archaeology.tau.ac.il/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/Qeiyafa_Unsensational_Interpretation.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> with those in favor of such a polity existing further divided between maximalists who support the Biblical accounts,<ref>{{cite book |last=Dever |first=William |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6-VxwC5rQtwC |title=What Did the Biblical Writers Know, and When Did They Know It? |publisher=Eerdmans |year=2001 |isbn=9780802821263}}</ref> and minimalists who argue that any such polity was likely smaller than suggested.<ref name="Zachary">{{Cite journal |last=Thomas |first=Zachary |date=2016-04-22 |title=Debating the United Monarchy: Let's See How Far We've Come |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146107916639208 |journal=Biblical Theology Bulletin: Journal of Bible and Culture |volume=46 |issue=2 |pages=59–69 |doi=10.1177/0146107916639208 |issn=0146-1079 |s2cid=147053561}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Crying King David: Are the ruins found in Israel really his palace? |language=en |newspaper=Haaretz |url=https://www.haaretz.com/archaeology/.premium-crying-king-david-not-his-palace-1.5324620 |access-date=2021-07-18 |quote=Not all agree that the ruins found in Khirbet Qeiyafa are of the biblical town Sha'arayim, let alone the palace of ancient Israel's most famous king |archive-date=24 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220524232935/https://www.haaretz.com/archaeology/.premium-crying-king-david-not-his-palace-1.5324620 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Historians and archaeologists agree that the [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|northern Kingdom of Israel]] existed by {{Abbr|ca.|circa}} 900 BCE<ref name="Finkelstein2">{{cite book |last1=Finkelstein |first1=Israel |title=The Bible unearthed : archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories |last2=Silberman |first2=Neil Asher |date=2001 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=978-0-684-86912-4 |edition=1st Touchstone |location=New York}}</ref><ref name="Wright">{{cite web |last1=Wright |first1=Jacob L. |date=July 2014 |title=David, King of Judah (Not Israel) |url=http://www.bibleinterp.com/articles/2014/07/wri388001.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301164250/http://www.bibleinterp.com/articles/2014/07/wri388001.shtml |archive-date=1 March 2021 |access-date=15 May 2021 |website=The Bible and Interpretation}}</ref> and the [[Kingdom of Judah]] existed by {{Abbr|ca.|circa}} 850 BCE.<ref name="Pitcher2">[https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&pg=PA229 The Pitcher Is Broken: Memorial Essays for Gosta W. Ahlstrom, Steven W. Holloway, Lowell K. Handy, Continuum, 1 May 1995] Quote: "For Israel, the description of the battle of Qarqar in the Kurkh Monolith of Shalmaneser III (mid-ninth century) and for Judah, a Tiglath-pileser III text mentioning (Jeho-) Ahaz of Judah (IIR67 = K. 3751), dated 734–733, are the earliest published to date."</ref><ref name="Finkelstein, Israel, (2020)">Finkelstein, Israel, (2020). [https://books.google.com/books?id=wH3-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA33 "Saul and Highlands of Benjamin Update: The Role of Jerusalem"], in Joachim J. Krause, Omer Sergi, and Kristin Weingart (eds.), ''Saul, Benjamin, and the Emergence of Monarchy in Israel: Biblical and Archaeological Perspectives'', SBL Press, Atlanta, GA, p. 48, footnote 57: "...They became territorial kingdoms later, Israel in the first half of the ninth century BCE and Judah in its second half..."</ref> The Kingdom of Israel was the more prosperous of the two kingdoms and soon developed into a regional power;{{sfn|Finkelstein|Silberman|2002|pp=146-7|ps=:Put simply, while Judah was still economically marginal and backward, Israel was booming. ... In the next chapter we will see how the northern kingdom suddenly appeared on the ancient Near Eastern stage as a major regional power}} during the days of the [[Omride Dynasty|Omride dynasty]], it controlled [[Samaria]], [[Galilee]], the upper [[Jordan Valley]], the [[Sharon plain|Sharon]] and large parts of the [[Transjordan (region)|Transjordan]].<ref name="Finkelstein-2013a">{{Cite book |first=Israel |last=Finkelstein |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/949151323 |title=The forgotten kingdom : the archaeology and history of Northern Israel |isbn=978-1-58983-910-6 |pages=74 |oclc=949151323 |archive-date=9 April 2023 |access-date=22 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160932/https://worldcat.org/oclc/949151323 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Samaria (ancient city)|Samaria]], the capital, was home to one of the largest Iron Age structures in the Levant.<ref name="Finkelstein-2013b">{{Cite book |last=Finkelstein |first=Israel |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/880456140 |title=The Forgotten Kingdom: the archaeology and history of Northern Israel |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-58983-911-3 |pages=65–66; 73; 78; 87–94 |oclc=880456140}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Finkelstein |first=Israel |date=2011-11-01 |title=Observations on the Layout of Iron Age Samaria |url=https://doi.org/10.1179/033443511x13099584885303 |journal=Tel Aviv |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=194–207 |doi=10.1179/033443511x13099584885303 |issn=0334-4355 |s2cid=128814117}}</ref> The Kingdom of Israel's capital moved between [[Shechem]], [[Penuel]] and [[Tirzah (ancient city)|Tirzah]] before Omri settled it in Samaria, and the royal succession was often settled by a military coup d'état. The Kingdom of Judah was smaller but more stable; the Davidic dynasty ruled the kingdom for the four centuries of its existence, with the capital always in Jerusalem, controlling the [[Judaean Mountains]], most of the [[Shephelah]] and the [[Beersheba]] valley in the northern [[Negev]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lemaire |first=André |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1017604304 |title=The Oxford Illustrated History of the Holy Land |date=2018 |others=Robert G. Hoyland, H. G. M. Williamson |isbn=978-0-19-872439-1 |edition=1st |location=Oxford, United Kingdom |pages=61–85 |chapter=Israel and Judah |oclc=1017604304 |archive-date=5 May 2023 |access-date=22 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230505154033/https://worldcat.org/oclc/1017604304 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 854 BCE, according to Assyrian records (the [[Kurkh Monoliths]]),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=367117&partId=1|title=The Kurkh Stela|website=British Museum|access-date=15 June 2017|archive-date=21 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171021005408/https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=367117&partId=1|url-status=live}}</ref> an alliance between [[Ahab]] of Israel and [[Ben-Hadad II|Ben Hadad II]] of [[Aram-Damascus]] managed to repulse the incursions of the [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]], with a victory at the [[Battle of Qarqar]]. This is not reported in the Bible which describes conflict between Ahab and Ben Hadad.<ref>{{bibleverse|1 Kings|20|HE}}</ref> Another important discovery of the period is the [[Mesha Stele]], a [[Moab]]ite stele found in [[Dhiban, Jordan|Dhiban]] when [[Sattam Al-Fayez|Emir Sattam Al-Fayez]] led [[Henry Tristram]] to it as they toured the lands of the vassals of the [[Bani Sakher]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Walsh |first=William |title=The Moabite Stone |publisher=PORTEOUS AND GIBBS, PRINTERS 16 WICKLOW STREET. |year=1872 |location=LONDON : HAMILTON AND CO.; J. NISBET AND CO. |pages=8, 12}}</ref> The stele is now in the [[Louvre]]. In the stele, [[Mesha]], king of Moab, tells how [[Chemosh]], the god of Moab, had been angry with his people and had allowed them to be subjugated to the [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Kingdom of Israel]], but at length, Chemosh returned and assisted Mesha to throw off the yoke of Israel and restore the lands of Moab. It refers to Omri, king of Israel,<ref name="Niehr1995">{{cite book |last=Niehr |first=Herbert |title=The Triumph of Elohim: From Yahwisms to Judaisms |publisher=[[Peeters Publishers]] |year=1995 |isbn=978-9053565032 |editor-last=Edelman |editor-first=Diana Vikander |location=[[Leuven]] |page=57 |chapter=The Rise of YHWH in Judahite and Israelite Religion: Methodological and Religio-Historical Aspects |oclc=33819403 |quote=The Meša inscription (ca. 850 BCE) clearly states that YHWH was the supreme god of Israel and of the Transjordanian territory occupied by Israel under the Omrides. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bua2dMa9fJ4C&pg=PA57}}</ref> to the god Yahweh,<ref name="Lemaire1994">{{cite journal |author-link=André Lemaire |date=May–June 1994 |title="House of David" Restored in Moabite Inscription |url=http://www.cojs.org/pdf/house_of_david.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=[[Biblical Archaeology Review]] |location=[[Washington, D.C.]] |publisher=[[Biblical Archaeology Society]] |volume=20 |issn=0098-9444 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120331134523/http://www.cojs.org/pdf/house_of_david.pdf |archive-date=31 March 2012 |author-last=Lemaire |author-first=André |number=3 |df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="Niehr1995" /> and may contain another early reference to the House of David.<ref name="Lemaire1994" /> [[Jehu]], son of Omri, is referenced by the [[Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III]].

====Assyrian invasions====
{{See also|Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III|Sennacherib's Annals|Resettlement policy of the Neo-Assyrian Empire}}
[[File:Map of Assyria.png|thumb|[[Neo-Assyrian Empire]] at its greatest territorial extent.]]
[[Tiglath-Pileser III]] of Assyria invaded Israel in around 732 BCE.<ref>{{bibleverse|2|Kings|15:29|HE}} {{bibleverse|1|Chronicles|5:26|HE}}</ref> The Kingdom of Israel fell to the Assyrians following a long siege of the capital [[Samaria (ancient city)|Samaria]] around 720 BCE.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Schipper |first=Bernd U. |title=A Concise History of Ancient Israel |chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781646020294-007/html |chapter=Chapter 3 Israel and Judah from 926/925 to the Conquest of Samaria in 722/720 BCE |date=2021-05-25 |pages=34–54 |publisher=Penn State University Press |isbn=978-1-64602-029-4 |language=en |doi=10.1515/9781646020294-007}}</ref> The records of [[Sargon II]] of [[Assyria]] indicate that he captured Samaria and deported 27,290 inhabitants to Mesopotamia.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Younger |first=K. Lawson |date=1998 |title=The Deportations of the Israelites |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3266980 |journal=Journal of Biblical Literature |volume=117 |issue=2 |pages=201–227 |doi=10.2307/3266980 |jstor=3266980 |issn=0021-9231}}</ref> It is likely that Shalmaneser captured the city since both the Babylonian Chronicles and the Hebrew Bible viewed the fall of Israel as the signature event of his reign.{{Sfn|Yamada|Yamada|2017|p=|pp=408–409}} The [[Resettlement policy of the Neo-Assyrian Empire|Assyrian deportations]] became the basis for the [[Jews|Jewish]] idea of the [[Ten Lost Tribes]]. Foreign groups were settled by the Assyrians in the territories of the fallen kingdom.<ref name="Israel-2013">{{Cite book |last=Israel |first=Finkelstein |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/949151323 |title=The forgotten kingdom : the archaeology and history of Northern Israel |publisher=Society of Biblical Literature |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-58983-910-6 |pages=158 |oclc=949151323 |archive-date=9 April 2023 |access-date=22 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160932/https://worldcat.org/oclc/949151323 |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Samaritans]] claim to be descended from [[Israelites]] of ancient Samaria who were not expelled by the Assyrians.
[[File:IMJ_view_20130115_202742.jpg|thumb|Detail of the [[Siloam inscription]]]]
It is believed that refugees from the destruction of Israel moved to Judah, massively expanding Jerusalem and leading to construction of the [[Siloam Tunnel]] during the rule of King [[Hezekiah]] (ruled 715–686 BCE).<ref>{{cite book |last=Broshi |first=Maguen |title=Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=etTUEorS1zMC&pg=PA174 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |year=2001 |page=174 |isbn=1841272019 |access-date=4 April 2018 |archive-date=9 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200109101759/https://books.google.com/books?id=etTUEorS1zMC&pg=PA174 |url-status=live }}</ref> The tunnel could provide water during a siege and its construction is described in the Bible.<ref>{{bibleverse|2 Kings|20:20|HE}}</ref> The [[Siloam inscription]], a plaque written in Hebrew left by the construction team, was discovered in the tunnel in 1880s, and is today held by the [[Istanbul Archaeology Museum]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Jewish Encyclopedia |title=Siloam Inscription |url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/13662-siloam-inscription |year=1906 |access-date=21 January 2021 |archive-date=23 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210123090052/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/13662-siloam-inscription |url-status=live }}</ref>

During Hezekiah's rule, [[Sennacherib]], the son of Sargon, [[Sennacherib's campaign in the Levant|attempted but failed to capture Judah]]. [[Taylor prism|Assyrian records]] say that Sennacherib levelled 46 walled cities and [[Assyrian Siege of Jerusalem|besieged Jerusalem]], leaving after receiving extensive [[tribute]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.imj.org.il/en/collections/372815|title=Sennacherib recounts his triumphs |website=The Israel Museum|date=17 February 2021|access-date=23 January 2021|archive-date=28 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128061658/https://www.imj.org.il/en/collections/372815 |url-status=live}}</ref> Sennacherib erected the [[Lachish reliefs]] in [[Nineveh]] to commemorate a second victory at [[Lachish]].
[[File:LMLK,_Ezekiah_seals.jpg|thumb|"[[Hezekiah]] ... king of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]]" – [[Seal (emblem)|Royal seal]] written in the [[Paleo-Hebrew alphabet]], unearthed in Jerusalem]]
The writings of four different "[[prophet]]s" are believed to date from this period: [[Hosea]] and [[Amos (prophet)|Amos]] in Israel and [[Micah (prophet)|Micah]] and [[Isaiah]] of Judah. These men were mostly social critics who warned of the Assyrian threat and acted as religious spokesmen. They exercised some form of [[free speech]] and may have played a significant social and political role in Israel and Judah.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Holladay |first=John S. |date=1970 |title=Assyrian Statecraft and the Prophets of Israel |journal=The Harvard Theological Review |volume=63 |issue=1 |pages=29–51 |doi=10.1017/S0017816000004016 |jstor=1508994 |s2cid=162713432 |issn=0017-8160}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Edelman |first1=Diana Vikander |last2=Zvi |first2=Ehud Ben |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zWTfBQAAQBAJ&dq=The+Concept+of+Prophetic+Books+and+Its+Historical+Setting&pg=PA73 |title=The Production of Prophecy: Constructing Prophecy and Prophets in Yehud |date=2014-12-18 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-49031-9 |pages=73 |language=en}}</ref> They urged rulers and the general populace to adhere to [[Ethical monotheism|god-conscious ethical ideals]], seeing the Assyrian invasions as a divine punishment of the collective resulting from ethical failures.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gordon |first=Robert P. |title="The place is too small for us": the Israelite prophets in recent scholarship |date=1995 |publisher=Eisenbrauns |isbn=1-57506-000-0 |pages=15–26 |oclc=1203457109}}</ref>

Under King [[Josiah]] (ruler from 641 to 619 BCE), the [[Book of Deuteronomy]] was either rediscovered or written. The [[Book of Joshua]] and the accounts of the kingship of David and Solomon in the [[Books of Kings|Book of Kings]] are believed to have the same author. The books are known as [[Deuteronomist]] and considered to be a key step in the emergence of [[monotheism]] in Judah. They emerged at a time that Assyria was weakened by the emergence of Babylon and may be a committing to text of pre-writing verbal traditions.<ref>The Social Roots of Biblical Yahwism by Stephen Cook, SBL 2004, p. 58</ref>