Editing Heruli (section)

===On the Pontic-Caspian steppe===
In 267/268 and 269/270 Graeco-Roman writers described two major campaigns by the "Eluri" into the Balkans and Aegean, which were among the last and biggest such seaborne raids from the northern Black Sea coast starting in the 250s.{{sfn|Prostko-Prostyński|2021|pp=32-34}} They are normally equated to the later Danubian Heruli.{{sfn|Heather|2010|p=124}} Although doubts have been raised about this link,{{sfn|Ellegård|1987}} the ''[[Augustan History]]'' written in the late 4th century, [[Jordanes]] in the 6th century, and [[George Syncellus]] around 800 all equated them with the Heruli known in later times.{{sfn|Schwarcz|2020|p=394}}

During these raids, Goths, Eluri, and other "Scythian" peoples took control of [[Black Sea]] Greek cities, and gained a fleet that they used to launch raids starting in the [[Black Sea]] itself, and going as far as Greece and [[Asia Minor]]. Although some historians in the past doubted whether there were really two invasions so close together, these invasions began in the reign of [[Gallienus]] (260-268 AD), and continued until at least 269 during the reign of [[Claudius Gothicus|Marcus Aurelius Claudius]], who subsequently took up the title "Gothicus" due to his victory.{{sfn|Steinacher|2017|pp=55-66}}{{sfn|Steinacher|2010|pp=322-327}}{{sfn|Schwarcz|2020|p=393}}

In 267, a Heruli fleet departed from the Sea of Azov, past the Danube delta, and into the straits of the [[Bosphorus]]. They took control of [[Byzantion]]{{efn|the area of modern [[Istanbul]]}} and [[Üsküdar|Chrysopolis]] before retreating to the Black Sea. Emerging to raid [[Cyzicus]], they subsequently entered the Aegean Sea, where they troubled [[Lemnos]], [[Skyros]] and [[Imbros]], before landing in the [[Peloponnese]]. There they plundered not only [[Sparta]], the closest city to their landing site, but also [[Corinth]], [[Argos, Peloponnese|Argos]], and the sanctuary of Zeus at [[Olympia, Greece|Olympia]]. Still within 267 they reached [[Athens]], where local militias had to defend the city. It seems to have been the Heruli specifically who [[Sack of Athens (267 AD)|sacked Athens]] despite the construction of a new wall, during [[Valerian (emperor)|Valerian]]’s reign only a generation earlier. This was the occasion for a famous defense made by [[Dexippus]], whose writings were a source for later historians.{{sfn|Steinacher|2017|pp=58-60}}

Further north, in 268, Gallienus defeated Heruli at the [[Nestos (river)|river Nestos]] using a new mobile cavalry, but as part of the surrender a Herulian chief named [[Naulobatus]] became the first barbarian known from written records to receive [[imperial insignia]] from the Romans, gaining the rank of a [[Roman consul]]. It is highly likely that these defeated Heruli were then made part of the Roman military.{{sfn|Steinacher|2010|p=324}}{{sfn|Steinacher|2017|p=62}}

Recent researchers such as Steinacher now have increased confidence that there was a distinct second campaign which began in 269, and ended in 270.<ref>Also see {{harvtxt|Zahariade|2010}}.</ref> Later Roman writers reported that thousands of ships left from the mouth of the [[Dnieper]], manned by a large force of various different "Scythian" peoples, including [[Peucini|Peuci]], [[Greutungi]], [[Ostrogoths|Austrogothi]], [[Tervingi]], [[Vesi]], [[Gepids]], "[[Celts]]", and Heruli. These forces divided into two parts in the [[Hellespont]]. One force attacked [[Thessaloniki]], and against this group the Romans, led by Claudius now, had a major victory at the [[Battle of Naissus]] ([[Niš]], [[Serbia]]) in 269. This was apparently a distinct battle from that at the Nessos. A Herulian chieftain named Andonnoballus is said to have switched to the Roman side, and this was once again a case where Heruli appear to have joined the Roman military. The second group sailed south and raided [[Rhodes]], [[Crete]], and [[Cyprus]] and many Goths and Heruli managed to return safely to harbor in the [[Crimea]]. Lesser attacks continued until 276.{{sfn|Steinacher|2017|pp=63-65}}{{sfn|Steinacher|2010|pp=326-327}}

The Heruli are believed to have formed part of the [[Chernyakhov culture]],{{sfn|Green|2000|p=1}} which, although dominated by the Goths and other Germanic peoples,<ref name="Heather_Chernyakhov">{{harvnb|Heather|1994|p=87}}. "[S]ome of the territory covered by the Sîntana de Mureş–Černjachov culture may have been controlled not by Goths but by related Germanic peoples, such as the Heruli."</ref> also included [[Bastarnae]], [[Dacians]] and [[Carpi (people)|Carpi]].{{sfn|Green|2000|p=137}} The Heruli are thus archaeologically indistinguishable from the Goths.{{sfn|Green|2000|p=1}}{{sfn|Heather|1994|p=87}}

Jordanes reports that these Heruli of the Azov area in the late 4th century AD were conquered by [[Ermanaric]], king of the Greuthungi Goths.{{sfn|Steinacher|2017|pp=77-80}}{{sfn|Steinacher|2010|pp=331–333}}{{sfn|Jordanes|1908|p=XXIII (116)}} Ermanaric's realm may also have included [[Baltic Finns|Finns]], [[Slavs]], [[Alans]] and [[Sarmatians]].{{sfn|Green|2000|p=137}} Before being conquered by Ermanaric, Jordanes says that the Heruli were led by a king named Alaric.{{sfn|Jordanes|1908|p=XXIII (116)}} [[Herwig Wolfram]] has suggested that the future [[Visigoths|Visigothic]] king [[Alaric I]] may have been named after this Herulian king.{{sfn|Heather|1994|p=33}}