Editing Hepburn romanization (section)

== Features ==
The main feature of Hepburn is that its [[orthography]] is based on English [[phonology]]. More technically, when syllables that are constructed systematically according to the Japanese syllabary contain an "unstable" consonant in the modern spoken language, the orthography is changed to something that better matches the real sound as an English-speaker would pronounce it. For example, {{nihongo2|し}} is written ''shi'' not ''si''. This transcription is thus only partly phonological.

Some linguists such as [[Harold E. Palmer]], [[Daniel Jones (phonetician)|Daniel Jones]] and [[Otto Jespersen]] object to Hepburn, contending that the pronunciation-based spellings can obscure the systematic origins of Japanese phonetic structures, inflections, and conjugations.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=松浦四郎|date=October 1992|title=104年かかった標準化|journal=標準化と品質菅理 -Standardization and Quality Control|volume=45|pages=92–93|publisher=Japanese Standards Association}}</ref> Since the vowel sounds in Hepburn are similar to the vowel sounds in Italian, and the consonants similar to those of many other languages, in particular English, speakers unfamiliar with Japanese will generally be more accurate when pronouncing unfamiliar words romanized in the Hepburn style compared to other systems.<ref name=hadamitzky>{{cite web|last1=Hadamitzky|first1=Wolfgang|last2=Spahn|first2=Mark|title=Romanization systems|url=https://www.hadamitzky.de/english/lp_romanization_sys.htm|website=Wolfgang Hadamitzky: Japan-related Textbooks, Dictionaries, and Reference Works|access-date=August 10, 2017|date=October 2005|archive-date=January 24, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170124095310/http://www.hadamitzky.de/english/lp_romanization_sys.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Long vowels ===
In Hepburn, vowel combinations that form a long sound are usually indicated with a [[macron (diacritic)|macron]] (◌̄). Other adjacent vowels, such as those separated by a [[morpheme]] boundary, are written separately:

{|class="wikitable"
|+ Vowels part of the same morpheme
!
!in traditional Hepburn<ref name="3rd">{{cite book|title=A Japanese-English And English-Japanese Dictionary.|author=James Curtis Hepburn|year=1886|publisher=Z. P Maruyama & Co.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qvEWAAAAYAAJ|access-date=April 12, 2011|edition=Third}}</ref>
!in modified Hepburn<ref name="kenkyusha">{{cite book|title=Kenkyusha's New Japanese-English Dictionary|year=1974|publisher=[[Kenkyūsha]]|edition=Fourth}}</ref>
|-
!A + A
|'''''aa''''': {{nihongo2|お{{Ruby|婆|ばあ}}さん}} – ''obaasan'' 'grandmother'<br>(ba + a)
|'''''ā''''': {{nihongo2|お{{Ruby|婆|ばあ}}さん}} – ''obāsan'' 'grandmother'<br>(ba + a)
|-
!I + I
| colspan="2" |'''''ii''''': {{nihongo2|{{Ruby|新|にい}}{{Ruby|潟|がた}}}} – [[Niigata (city)|''Niigata'']]<br>(ni + i)
|-
!U + U
| colspan="2" |'''''ū''''': {{nihongo2|{{Ruby|数|すう}}{{Ruby|学|がく}}}} – ''sūgaku'' 'mathematics'<br>(su + u)
|-
!E + E
|'''''ee''''': {{nihongo2|お{{Ruby|姉|ねえ}}さん}} – ''oneesan'' 'older sister'<br>(ne + e)
|'''''ē''''': {{nihongo2|お{{Ruby|姉|ねえ}}さん}} – ''onēsan '' 'older sister'<br>(ne + e)
|-
!O + O
| colspan="2" |'''''ō''''': {{nihongo2|{{Ruby|遠|とお}}{{Ruby|回|まわ}}り}} – ''tōmawari'' 'detour'<br>(to + o)
|-
!O + U
| colspan="2" |'''''ō''''': {{nihongo2|{{Ruby|勉|べん}}{{Ruby|強|きょう}}}} – ''benkyō'' 'study'<br>(kyo + u)
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|+Vowels part of separate morphemes
!
!In traditional<ref name="3rd"/> and modified Hepburn<ref name="kenkyusha"/>
|-
! A + A
| colspan="2" |'''''aa''''': {{nihongo2|{{Ruby|邪|じゃ}}{{Ruby|悪|あく}}}} – ''ja'' + ''aku'' – ''jaaku'' 'evil'
|-
! I + I
| colspan="2" |'''''ii''''': {{nihongo2|{{Ruby|灰|はい}}{{Ruby|色|いろ}}}} – ''hai'' + ''iro'' – ''haiiro'' 'grey'<br>(also terminal adjectives: {{nihongo2|いい}} – ''i'' + ''i'' – ''ii'' 'good')
|-
! U + U
| colspan="2" |'''''uu''''': {{nihongo2|{{Ruby|湖|みずうみ}}}} – ''mizu'' + ''umi'' – ''mizuumi'' 'lake'<br>(also terminal verbs: {{nihongo2|{{Ruby|食|く}}う}} – ''ku'' + ''u'' – ''kuu'' 'to eat')
|-
! E + E
| colspan="2" |'''''ee''''': {{nihongo2|{{Ruby|濡|ぬ}}れ{{Ruby|縁|えん}}}} – ''nure'' + ''en'' – {{Transliteration|ja|nureen}} 'open veranda'
|-
! O + O
| colspan="2" |'''''oo''''': {{nihongo2|{{Ruby|小|こ}}{{Ruby|躍|おど}}り}} – ''ko'' + ''odori'' – ''koodori'' 'dance of joy'
|-
! O + U
| colspan="2" |'''''ou''''': {{nihongo2|{{Ruby|仔|こ}}{{Ruby|牛|うし}}}} – ''ko'' + ''ushi'' – ''koushi'' 'calf'<br>(also terminal verbs: {{nihongo2|{{Ruby|迷|まよ}}う}} – ''mayo'' + ''u'' – ''mayou'' 'to get lost')
|}

All other vowel combinations are always written separately:
* '''E + I''': {{nihongo2|{{Ruby|制|せい}}{{Ruby|服|ふく}}}} – ''sei'' + ''fuku'' – ''seifuku'' 'uniform' (despite E + I often being pronounced as a long E)
* '''U + I''': {{nihongo2|{{Ruby|軽|かる}}い}} – ''karu'' + ''i'' – ''karui'' 'light (in weight)'
* '''O + I''': {{nihongo2|{{Ruby|甥|おい}}}} – ''oi'' – ''oi'' 'nephew'

==== Loanwords ====
In foreign [[loanword]]s, long vowels followed by a ''[[chōonpu]]'' (ー) are indicated with macrons:
* {{nihongo2|セーラー}}: ''se'' + (ー) + ''ra'' + (ー) = ''sērā'' 'sailor'
* {{nihongo2|タクシー}}: ''ta'' + ''ku'' + ''shi'' + (ー) = ''takushī'' 'taxi'
* {{nihongo2|コンクール}}: ''ko'' + ''n'' + ''ku'' + (ー) + ''ru'' = ''konkūru'' 'competition'
* {{nihongo2|バレーボール}}: ''ba'' + ''re'' + (ー) + ''bo'' + (ー) + ''ru'' = ''barēbōru'' 'volleyball'
* {{nihongo2|ソール}}: ''so'' + (ー) + ''ru'' = ''sōru'' 'sole (of a shoe, etc.)'

Adjacent vowels in loanwords are written separately:
* {{nihongo2|バレエ}}: ''ba'' + ''re'' + ''e'' – ''baree'' 'ballet'
* {{nihongo2|ミイラ}}: ''mi'' + ''i'' + ''ra'' – ''miira'' 'mummy'
* {{nihongo2|ソウル}}: ''so'' + ''u'' + ''ru'' – ''souru'' 'soul', '[[Seoul]]'

==== Variations ====
There are many variations on the Hepburn system for indicating long vowels with a macron. For example, {{nihongo2|東京}} ({{nihongo2|とうきょう}}) is properly romanized as ''Tōkyō'', but can also be written as:
* ''Tokyo'' – not indicated at all. Common for Japanese words that have been adopted into English, and the ''de facto'' convention for Hepburn used in signs and other English-language information around Japan.
* ''Tôkyô'' – indicated with [[circumflex accent]]s, as in the alternative [[Nihon-shiki romanization|Nihon-shiki]] and [[Kunrei-shiki romanization|Kunrei-shiki]] romanizations. They are often used when macrons are unavailable or difficult to input, due to their visual similarity.<ref name="tebiki">{{cite book|script-title=ja:ローマ字手引き|trans-title=RÔMAJI TEBIKI|author=Fujino Katsuji|year=1909|publisher=Rômaji-Hirome-kai|language=ja}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|script-title=ja:昭和29年内閣告示第1号 ローマ字のつづり方|trans-title=Japanese Cabinet Order No.1 in 1954 - How to write Romanization|date=December 9, 1954|url=http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/hakusho/nc/k19541209001/k19541209001.html|language=ja|publisher=[[Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology]]|author=Cabinet of Japan|author-link=Cabinet of Japan|access-date=May 19, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130529171936/http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/hakusho/nc/k19541209001/k19541209001.html|archive-date=May 29, 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* ''Tohkyoh'' – indicated with an ''h'' (only applies after ''o''). This is sometimes known as "passport Hepburn", as the Japanese Foreign Ministry has authorized (but not required) it in passports.<ref name="tokyo">{{cite web|url=http://www.seikatubunka.metro.tokyo.jp/hebon/ |title=PASSPORT_ヘボン式ローマ字綴方表 |trans-title=Table of Spelling in Hepburn Romanization |author=Bureau of Citizens and Culture Affairs of Tokyo |author-link=Tokyo Metropolitan Government |language=ja |access-date=December 13, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111205110946/http://www.seikatubunka.metro.tokyo.jp/hebon/ |archive-date=December 5, 2011 }}</ref><ref name="cisco">{{cite web|url=http://www.sf.us.emb-japan.go.jp/pdf/a_hihebon_romaji.pdf|script-title=ja:ヘボン式ローマ字綴方表|trans-title=Table of Spelling in Hepburn Romanization|author=Consulate-General of Japan in San Francisco|language=ja|access-date=December 13, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120513035601/http://www.sf.us.emb-japan.go.jp/pdf/a_hihebon_romaji.pdf|archive-date=May 13, 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="detroit">{{cite web|url=http://www.detroit.us.emb-japan.go.jp/pdf/jp/ryouji/EXAMPLE%20OF%20APPLICATION%20FORM%20FOR%20PASSPORT.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.detroit.us.emb-japan.go.jp/pdf/jp/ryouji/EXAMPLE%20OF%20APPLICATION%20FORM%20FOR%20PASSPORT.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|title=Example of Application Form for Passport|author=Consulate-General of Japan in Detroit|language=ja|access-date=December 13, 2011}}</ref>
* ''Toukyou'' – written using [[kana]] spelling: ''ō'' as ''ou'' or ''oo'' (depending on the kana). This is also known as ''[[Wāpuro rōmaji|wāpuro]]'' style, as it reflects how text is entered into a Japanese word processor by using a keyboard with [[Latin script|Roman character]]s. ''Wāpuro'' more accurately represents the way that ''ō'' is written in kana by differentiating between {{nihongo2|おう}} (as in {{nihongo2|とうきょう}} ({{nihongo2|東京}}), ''Toukyou'' in ''wāpuro'') and {{nihongo2|おお}} (as in {{nihongo2|とおい}} ({{nihongo2|遠い}}), ''tooi'' in ''wāpuro''); however, it fails to differentiate between long vowels and vowels separated by a morpheme boundary.
*''Tookyoo'' – written by doubling the long vowels. Some dictionaries such as the ''Pocket Kenkyusha Japanese Dictionary''<ref name="pocket">{{cite book |author=Pocket Kenkyusha Japanese Dictionary |url=https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0198607482/ref=sib_dp_pop_fc?ie=UTF8&p=S001#reader-link |title=Pocket Kenkyusha Japanese Dictionary (9780198607489): Shigeru Takebayashi, Kazuhiko Nagai: Books | date=March 9, 2007 |publisher=Amazon.com | isbn=978-0-19-860748-9 |access-date=June 29, 2012 |archive-date=March 8, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308022156/https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0198607482/ref=sib_dp_pop_fc?ie=UTF8&p=S001#reader-link |url-status=live }}</ref> and ''Basic English Writers' Japanese-English Wordbook'' follow this style, and it is also used in the [[JSL romanization|JSL]] form of romanization.

=== Particles ===
In '''traditional''' and '''modified''':
* When {{nihongo2|は}} is used as a particle, it is written ''wa''.

In '''traditional Hepburn''':
* When {{nihongo2|へ}} is used as a particle, Hepburn originally recommended ''ye''.<ref name="3rd"/> [[Historical kana orthography|This spelling is obsolete]], and it is commonly written as ''e'' (Romaji-Hirome-Kai, 1974<ref name="hyouzyunC">{{cite web |url=http://www.ab.cyberhome.ne.jp/~kaizu/roomazi/doc/hyouzyunC.html |title=標準式ローマ字つづり―引用 |access-date=February 27, 2016 |archive-date=October 22, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161022012426/http://www.ab.cyberhome.ne.jp/~kaizu/roomazi/doc/hyouzyunC.html |url-status=live }}{{self-published source|date=February 2016}}</ref>).
* When {{nihongo2|を}} is used as a particle, it is written ''wo''.<ref name="3rd"/>

In '''modified Hepburn''':<ref name="kenkyusha"/>
* When {{nihongo2|へ}} is used as a particle, it is written ''e''.
* When {{nihongo2|を}} is used as a particle, it is written ''o''.

=== Syllabic ''n'' ===
In '''traditional Hepburn''':<ref name="3rd"/>
:Syllabic ''n'' ({{nihongo2|ん}}) is written as ''n'' before consonants, but as ''m'' before [[labial consonant]]s: ''b'', ''m'', and ''p''. It is sometimes written as ''n-'' (with a hyphen) before vowels and ''y'' (to avoid confusion between, for example, {{nihongo2|んあ}} ''n + a'' and {{nihongo2|な}} ''na'', and {{nihongo2|んや}} ''n + ya'' and {{nihongo2|にゃ}} ''nya''), but its hyphen usage is not clear. <!-- see talk page -->
* {{nihongo2|案内（あんない）}}: ''annai'' – guide
* {{nihongo2|群馬（ぐんま）}}: ''Gumma'' – [[Gunma]]
* {{nihongo2|簡易（かんい）}}: ''kan-i'' – simple
* {{nihongo2|信用（しんよう）}}: ''shin-yō'' – trust

In '''modified Hepburn''':<ref name="kenkyusha"/>
:The rendering ''m'' before labial consonants is not used and is replaced with ''n''. It is written ''n''' (with an apostrophe) before vowels and ''y''.
* {{nihongo2|案内（あんない）}}: ''annai'' – guide
* {{nihongo2|群馬（ぐんま）}}: ''Gunma'' – Gunma
* {{nihongo2|簡易（かんい）}}: ''kan'i'' – simple
* {{nihongo2|信用（しんよう）}}: ''shin'yō'' – trust

=== Long consonants ===
Elongated (or "[[gemination|geminate]]") consonant sounds are marked by doubling the consonant following a [[sokuon]], {{nihongo2|っ}}; for consonants that are digraphs in Hepburn (''sh'', ''ch'', ''ts''), only the first consonant of the set is doubled, except for ''ch'', which is replaced by ''tch''.<ref name="3rd"/><ref name="kenkyusha"/>
* {{nihongo2|結果（けっか）}}: ''kekka'' – result
* {{nihongo2|さっさと}}: ''sassato'' – quickly
* {{nihongo2|ずっと}}: ''zutto'' – all the time
* {{nihongo2|切符（きっぷ）}}: ''kippu'' – ticket
* {{nihongo2|雑誌（ざっし）}}: ''zasshi'' – magazine
* {{nihongo2|一緒（いっしょ）}}: ''issho'' – together
* {{nihongo2|こっち}}: ''kotchi'' (not ''kocchi'') – this way
* {{nihongo2|抹茶（まっちゃ）}}: ''matcha'' (not ''maccha'') – [[matcha]]
* {{nihongo2|三つ（みっつ）}}: ''mittsu'' – three