Editing Henry Morton Stanley (section)

==International Upper Congo Expedition (1879–1884)==
[[File:Henry Morton Stanley Reutlinger BNF Gallica cropped.jpg|thumb|Henry M. Stanley in 1884]]
{{Main|International Association of the Congo|Berlin Conference|Congo Free State}}

On 15 April 1877, [[Leopold II of the Belgians|King Leopold II of the Belgians]] sent his first expedition to Central Africa, then still under the flag of the [[International African Association]]. The members of the expedition, four Belgians, departing from [[Zanzibar]], had the goal of establishing a scientific post in [[Karema, Tanzania|Karema]], in today's [[Tanzania]], but even before the group entered [[Central Africa]], two of them had already died, one from a sun stroke, the other from a severe fever, upon which the other members of the expedition resigned. Because of these difficulties, Leopold realised how important it was to find experienced men to lead his expeditions. He first tried to persuade [[Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza]], but he had already entered French service; his eye now fell on Stanley.<ref>{{cite book | last1=Struye | first1=Lieven | last2=De Gueldre | first2=Alain | last3=Bernaerts | first3=Bruno | last4=Adriaenssens | first4=Ivo | title=Kroniek van België | publisher=Standaard | publication-place=Antwerpen | date=1987 | isbn=90-02-16042-9 | oclc=781941957 | language=nl | chapter = Belgische Expiditie zwaar getroffen in Afrika | page = 707}}</ref>{{sfn|Stanley|1885|p=20}} Stanley had first hoped to continue his pioneering work in Africa under the British flag. But neither the Foreign Office nor Edward, the Prince of Wales, felt called to receive Stanley after the many rumours of his looting and killing in the interior of the African continent.<ref name="Hannes Vanhauwaert">{{cite book|last=Hannes|first=Vanhauwaert |title=All the King's Men: A search for the colonial ideas of some advisers and "accomplices" of Leopold II (1853-1892) | chapter= 8. The short colonial careers of Jules Greindl, Eugène père Beyens, Eugène Napoléon Beyens and Maximilien Strauch; section: A skeptical Jules Greindl (1835–1917)|language=nl |url=http://www.ethesis.net/leopold_II/leopold_II.htm|year=2005|publisher=Catholic University of Leuven}}</ref> Leopold eagerly received a disenchanted Stanley at his palace in June 1878, and signed a five-year contract with him in November.<ref name="jeal2007" />{{rp|236}}

Stanley persuaded Leopold that the first step should be the construction of a wagon trail around the Congo rapids and a chain of trading stations on the river. To avoid discovery, materials and workers were shipped in by various roundabout routes, and communications between Stanley and Leopold were entrusted to Colonel [[Maximilien Strauch]].<ref name="Hochschild2005">{{cite magazine | title = In the Heart of Darkness | last = Hochschild | first = Adam | magazine = The New York Review of Books | date = 6 October 2005 | access-date = 10 July 2018 | url = http://www.nybooks.com/articles/2005/10/06/in-the-heart-of-darkness/ }}</ref>

=== Stanley as Leopold's agent ===
[[File:Henry M Stanley 1890.jpg|thumb|Henry Morton Stanley, 1890]]
[[File:Wr Studio Portrait of Henry Morton Stanley, ca. 1890, published by L Herbst.jpg|thumb|Studio Portrait of Henry Morton Stanley, ca. 1890, published by L Herbst, Sydney]]
In 1879, Stanley left for Africa for his first mission, ostensibly working for the [[Comité d'études du Haut-Congo]], under Leopold's orders. King Leopold gave Stanley clear instructions: "It is not about Belgian colonies. It is about establishing a new state that is as large as possible and about its governance. It should be clear that in this project there can be no question of granting the Negroes the slightest form of political power. That would be ridiculous. The whites, who lead the posts, have all the power."<ref name="Leopold II, The whole story, Episode 6">{{cite book|last=Op de Beeck|first=Johan |title=Leopold II, the whole story|url=https://klara.be/leopold-ii-aflevering-6|year=2020|publisher=Horizon|isbn=9789463962094}}</ref>

Stanley described in writings his dismay with the terrible scenes taking place in Congo. At the same time, his "findings" conveyed an idea that the Dark Continent must submit, willingly or otherwise. Stanley's writings show that he, too, held this view. "Only by proving that we are superior to the savages, not only through our power to kill them but through our entire way of life, can we control them as they are now, in their present stage; it is necessary for their own well-being, even more than ours."<ref name="Leopold II, The whole story, Episode 6"/>

Unexpectedly, France had sent its own expedition to the [[Congo Basin]]. [[Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza]] had undermined Stanley's mission by concluding contracts himself with native heads of state. The creation of a station that would later be called [[Brazzaville]] could not be prevented. Leopold was furious, writing angrily to Strauch: "The terms of the treaties Stanley has made with native chiefs do not satisfy me. There must at least be an added article to the effect that they delegate to us their sovereign rights&nbsp;... the treaties must be as brief as possible and in a couple of articles must grant us everything."<ref>{{Cite book|title=H.M. Stanley Unpublished Letters|last=Maurice|first=Albert|year=1957|publisher = W. & R. Chambers | location=London|page=161}}</ref>

Since everything in Central Africa was about the balance of power between the [[Great Powers]], Leopold considered his next moves and sent an envoy to Berlin to press for a [[Berlin Conference|conference]]. Leopold wanted the [[International Association of the Congo]] boundaries drawn by Stanley to be officially confirmed, thus giving the Association an official status.<ref name="Leopold II, The whole story, Episode 6"/>

On 26 February 1885, the Berlin Act was signed. The Act regulated an immense free trade zone in the Congo Basin and made it a neutral territory. Furthermore, the Act declared war on slavery. The act contained only one article that Leopold disliked: Article 17 gave the superpowers the right to establish an international commission to supervise the freedom of trade and navigation in Congo. As a result, Leopold would not be able to collect customs duties on the Congo River <ref name="Leopold II, The whole story, Episode 6"/>

In 1890, on the 25th anniversary of Leopold's reign as Belgian monarch, Stanley was taken from one banquet hall to another, proclaimed a hero. Leopold honoured him with the [[Order of Leopold (Belgium)|Order of Leopold]]. Together they examined the entire Congolese situation. The key question was how the Free State could become profitable. Stanley pointed out to the monarch, among other things, the potential of rubber production. Stanley wrote: "You can find it on almost any tree. As we made our way through the forest, it was literally raining rubber juice. Our clothes were full of it. The Congo has so many tributaries that a well-organized company can easily extract a few tons of rubber per year here. You only have to sail up such a river and the branches with rubber hang almost up to your ship."<ref name="Leopold II, The whole story, Episode 8">{{cite book|last=Op de Beeck|first=Johan |title=The History of Congo|url=https://klara.be/leopold-ii-aflevering-8-0|year=2020|publisher=Horizon|isbn=9789463962094}}</ref>

In 1891, rubber extraction was divided among concessionaires. This soon led to abuses, when the switch was made to "forced labour".<ref name="Leopold II, The whole story, Episode 8"/>

=== Founding of Leopoldville (Kinshasa) ===
{{Main|History of Kinshasa|Timeline of Kinshasa|Kinshasa (commune)#History}}
Stanley, who had left from a post at [[Vivi, Democratic Republic of the Congo|Vivi]] near [[Matadi]] on 21 February 1880, arrived at [[Pool Malebo|Stanley pool]] on 3 December 1882. Building a road from Vivi to [[Isangila]], Stanley took almost 2 years to traverse the [[rapids]] towing with him 50 tonnes of equipment, including 2 dismantled steamboats and a barge. After he arrived at Stanley pool, a local king, Makoko of the [[Anziku Kingdom]], gave him a site near [[Kintambo]] to build a city.  Despite hostilities from another nearby king, [[Ngaliema]], he decided to start the construction of [[Kinshasa|Léopoldville]] on the hillside of [[Khonzo Izulu]]. Today [[Kinshasa]]'s population is 17,000,000, and it is one of the world's fastest growing [[megacities]].<ref>{{cite book | last1=Struye | first1=Lieven | last2=De Gueldre | first2=Alain | last3=Bernaerts | first3=Bruno | last4=Adriaenssens | first4=Ivo | title=Kroniek van België | publisher=Standaard | publication-place=Antwerpen | date=1987 | isbn=90-02-16042-9 | oclc=781941957 | language=nl | chapter = Stanley sticht Leopoldstad na heroïsche tocht | page = 713}}</ref>

=== Dealings with Zanzibari slave traders ===
[[File:The contract signed by Henry Morton Stanley with slave trader Tippu Tip on behalf of King Leopold II at the British consulate in Zanzibar in 1887.jpg|thumb|The contract signed between Henry Morton Stanley and Tippu Tip on behalf of [[King Leopold II]] at the British consulate in [[Sultanate of Zanzibar|Zanzibar]] in 1887, in which Leopold appoints [[Tippu Tip]] as governor of the [[Stanley Falls District]]]]
{{Main|Tippu Tip|Indian Ocean slave trade|Congo Arab war}}
[[Tippu Tip]], the most powerful of [[Zanzibar]]'s [[slavery|slave]] traders of the 19th century, was well known to Stanley, as was the social chaos and devastation brought by [[Slave raiding|slave-hunting]]. It had only been through Tippu Tip's help that Stanley had found Livingstone, who had survived years on the [[Lualaba River|Lualaba]] under Tippu Tip's friendship. Now, Stanley discovered that Tippu Tip's men had reached still further west in search of fresh populations to enslave.{{citation needed|date=February 2020}}

Four years earlier, the Zanzibaris had thought the Congo deadly and impassable and warned Stanley not to attempt to go there, but when Tippu Tip learned that Stanley had survived, he was quick to act. Villages throughout the region were burned and depopulated. Tippu Tip had raided 118 villages, killed 4,000 Africans, and, when Stanley reached his camp, had 2,300 slaves, mostly young women and children, in chains ready to transport halfway across the continent to the markets of Zanzibar. {{citation needed|date=February 2020}}

Having found the new ruler of the Upper Congo, Stanley had no choice but to negotiate an agreement with him, to stop Tip coming further downstream and attacking [[Kinshasa|Leopoldville]] and other stations. To achieve this, he had to allow Tip to build his final river station just below [[Boyoma Falls|Stanley Falls]], which prevented vessels from sailing further upstream.<ref name="Bennett1986">{{cite book|last=Bennett|first=Norman R. |title=Arab Versus European: Diplomacy and War in Nineteenth-Century East Central Africa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sfdyAAAAMAAJ|year=1986|publisher=Africana Publishing Company|location=New York|isbn=978-0-8419-0861-1}}</ref>{{citation needed|date=February 2020}} At the end of his physical resources, Stanley returned home, to be replaced by Lieutenant Colonel [[Francis de Winton]], a former [[British Army]] officer.