Editing Henry James (section)

==Works==
{{Main|Henry James bibliography}}

===Style and themes===
James is one of the major figures of [[wikt:transatlantic|trans-Atlantic]] literature. His works frequently juxtapose characters from the [[Old World]] (Europe), embodying a feudal civilisation that is beautiful, often corrupt, and alluring, and from the [[New World]] (United States), where people are often brash, open, and [[assertiveness|assertive]], and embody the virtues of the new American society—particularly personal freedom and a more exacting moral character. James explores this [[clash of personalities]] and cultures, in stories of personal relationships in which power is exercised well or badly.

His protagonists were often young American women facing oppression or abuse, and as his secretary [[Theodora Bosanquet]] remarked in her monograph ''Henry James at Work'':
[[File:Portrait of Henry James 1913.jpg|thumb|upright|''Portrait of Henry James'', charcoal drawing by [[John Singer Sargent]] (1912)]]

{{blockquote|text=When he walked out of the refuge of his study and into the world and looked around him, he saw a place of torment, where creatures of prey perpetually thrust their claws into the quivering flesh of doomed, defenseless children of light&nbsp;... His novels are a repeated exposure of this wickedness, a reiterated and passionate plea for the fullest [[Political freedom|freedom]] of development, unimperiled by reckless and barbarous stupidity.<ref>Bosanquet (1982) pp. 275–276</ref>}}

[[Philip Guedalla]] jokingly described three phases in the development of James's prose: "James I, James II, and The Old Pretender,"<ref>[[Guedalla, Philip]] (1921). [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.88538 ''Supers & Supermen: Studies in Politics, History and Letters''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925054942/https://books.google.com/books?id=E0luAAAAMAAJ&PA45 |date=25 September 2015 }}, p. 45. Alfred A. Knopf. Retrieved 27 January 2014.</ref> and observers do often group his works of fiction into three periods. In his apprentice years, culminating with the masterwork ''The Portrait of a Lady'', his style was simple and direct (by the standards of Victorian magazine writing) and he experimented widely with forms and methods, generally narrating from a conventionally omniscient point of view. Plots generally concern romance, except for the three big novels of social commentary that conclude this period. In the second period, as noted above, he abandoned the serialised novel and from 1890 to about 1897, he wrote short stories and plays. Finally, in his third and last period he returned to the long, serialised novel. Beginning in the second period, but most noticeably in the third; he increasingly abandoned direct statement in favour of frequent double negatives, and complex descriptive imagery. Single paragraphs began to run for page after page, in which an initial noun would be succeeded by pronouns surrounded by clouds of adjectives and prepositional clauses, far from their original referents, and verbs would be deferred and then preceded by a series of adverbs. The overall effect could be a vivid evocation of a scene as perceived by a sensitive observer. It has been debated whether this change of style was engendered by James's shifting from writing to dictating to a typist,<ref>Miller, James E. Jr., ed. (1972). [https://books.google.com/books?id=lANfu4yo0P4C&pg=PA268 ''Theory of Fiction: Henry James''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151002060937/https://books.google.com/books?id=lANfu4yo0P4C&pg=PA268 |date=2 October 2015 }}, pp. 268–69. University of Nebraska Press. Retrieved 27 February 2014.</ref> a change made during the composition of ''[[What Maisie Knew]].''<ref>Edel, Leon, ed. (1984). [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ytg3CfAmV0EC&pg=PA4 ''Henry James: Letters, Vol. IV, 1895–1916''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151002062351/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ytg3CfAmV0EC&pg=PA4 |date=2 October 2015 }}, p. 4. Harvard University Press. Retrieved 17 February 2014.</ref>

In its intense focus on the consciousness of his major characters, James's later work foreshadows extensive developments in 20th-century fiction.<ref>Wagenknecht (1983).</ref>{{refn|See James's prefaces, Horne's study of his revisions for ''The New York Edition,'' Edward Wagenknecht's ''The Novels of Henry James'' (1983) among many discussions of the changes in James's narrative technique and style over the course of his career.|group=nb}} Indeed, he might have influenced stream-of-consciousness writers such as [[Virginia Woolf]], who not only read some of his novels but also wrote essays about them.<ref>Woolf (March 2003) pp. 33, 39–40, 58, 86, 215, 301, 351.</ref> Both contemporary and modern readers have found the late style difficult and unnecessary; his friend [[Edith Wharton]], who admired him greatly, said that some passages in his work were all but incomprehensible.<ref>Edith Wharton (1925) pp. 90–91</ref> James was harshly portrayed by [[H.&nbsp;G. Wells]] as a hippopotamus laboriously attempting to pick up a pea that had got into a corner of its cage.<ref>H. G. Wells, Boon (1915) p. 101.</ref> The "late James" style was ably parodied by [[Max Beerbohm]] in "The Mote in the Middle Distance".<ref>Beerbohm, Max (1922).  "The Mote in the Middle Distance." In [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_mE5aAAAAMAAJ/page/n7 <!-- pg=1 --> ''A Christmas Garland''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925015008/https://books.google.com/books?id=mE5aAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA1 |date=25 September 2015 }}, p. 1. E.P. Dutton & Company. Retrieved 27 January 2014.</ref>

More important for his work overall may have been his position as an [[expatriate]], and in other ways an outsider, living in Europe. While he came from middle-class and provincial beginnings (seen from the perspective of European polite society), he worked very hard to gain access to all levels of society, and the settings of his fiction range from working-class to [[aristocracy|aristocratic]], and often describe the efforts of middle-class Americans to make their way in European capitals. He confessed he got some of his best story ideas from gossip at the dinner table or at country house weekends.<ref>{{Cite web |last=James |first=Henry |date=1908 |title=Preface to volume 10 of the New York edition (containing: The spoils of Poynton; A London life; The chaperon) |url=http://www.henryjames.org.uk/prefaces/text10_inframe.htm |access-date=15 July 2024 |archive-date=13 October 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061013003155/http://www.henryjames.org.uk/prefaces/text10_inframe.htm |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref>{{refn|James's prefaces to the ''[[New York Edition]]'' of his fiction often discuss such origins for his stories. See, for instance, the preface to ''[[The Spoils of Poynton]]''.|group=nb}} He worked for a living, however, and lacked the experiences of select schools, university, and army service, the common bonds of masculine society. He was furthermore a man whose tastes and interests were, according to the prevailing standards of [[Victorian era]] Anglo-American culture, rather feminine, and who was shadowed by the cloud of prejudice that then and later accompanied suspicions of his homosexuality.<ref name="Edel 1984 v.4 p. 170">Leon Edel (1984) volume 4, p. 170</ref>{{refn|James himself noted his "outsider" status. In a letter of 2 October 1901, to W. Morton Fullerton, James talked of the "essential loneliness of my life" as "the deepest thing" about him.<ref name="Edel 1984 v.4 p. 170" />|group=nb}} Edmund Wilson compared James's objectivity to Shakespeare's:

{{blockquote|text=One would be in a position to appreciate James better if one compared him with the dramatists of the seventeenth century—[[Jean Racine|Racine]] and [[Molière]], whom he resembles in form as well as in point of view, and even [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]], when allowances are made for the most extreme differences in subject and form. These poets are not, like [[Charles Dickens|Dickens]] and [[Thomas Hardy|Hardy]], writers of melodrama—either humorous or pessimistic, nor secretaries of society like [[Honoré de Balzac|Balzac]], nor prophets like [[Leo Tolstoy|Tolstoy]]: they are occupied simply with the presentation of conflicts of moral character, which they do not concern themselves about softening or averting. They do not indict society for these situations: they regard them as universal and inevitable. They do not even blame God for allowing them: they accept them as the conditions of life.<ref>Dabney (1983) pp. 128–129</ref>}}

Many of James's stories may also be seen as psychological thought experiments about selection. In his preface to the New York edition of ''The American'', James describes the development of the story in his mind as exactly such: the "situation" of an American, "some robust but insidiously beguiled and betrayed, some cruelly wronged, compatriot..." with the focus of the story being on the response of this wronged man.<ref>The American, 1907, p. vi–vii</ref> ''The Portrait of a Lady'' may be an experiment to see what happens when an idealistic young woman suddenly becomes very rich. In many of his tales, characters seem to exemplify alternative futures and possibilities, as most markedly in "[[The Jolly Corner]]", in which the protagonist and a ghost-doppelganger live alternative American and European lives; and in others, like ''The Ambassadors,'' an older James seems fondly to regard his own younger self facing a crucial moment.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bell |first=Millicent |title=Meaning in Henry James |date=1991 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-55762-8 |location=Cambridge, Mass |pages=324}}</ref>

===Major novels===
The first period of James's fiction, usually considered to have culminated in ''[[The Portrait of a Lady]]'', concentrated on the contrast between Europe and America. The style of these novels is generally straightforward and, though personally characteristic, well within the norms of 19th-century fiction. ''[[Roderick Hudson]]'' (1875) is a [[Künstlerroman]] that traces the development of the title character, an extremely talented sculptor. Although the book shows some signs of immaturity—this was James's first serious attempt at a full-length novel—it has attracted favourable comment due to the vivid realisation of the three major characters: Roderick Hudson, superbly gifted but unstable and unreliable; Rowland Mallet, Roderick's limited but much more mature friend and patron; and Christina Light, one of James's most enchanting and maddening [[femme fatale|femmes fatales]]. The pair of Hudson and Mallet has been seen as representing the two sides of James's own nature: the wildly imaginative artist and the brooding conscientious mentor.<ref>Kraft (1969) p. 68.</ref>

In ''The Portrait of a Lady'' (1881), James concluded the first phase of his career with a novel that remains his most popular piece of long fiction. The story is of a spirited young American woman, Isabel Archer, who "affronts her destiny" and finds it overwhelming. She inherits a large amount of money and subsequently becomes the victim of Machiavellian scheming by two American expatriates. The narrative is set mainly in Europe, especially in England and Italy. Generally regarded as the masterpiece of his early phase, ''The Portrait of a Lady'' is described as a [[psychological fiction|psychological novel]], exploring the minds of his characters, and almost a work of social science, exploring the differences between Europeans and Americans, the old and the new worlds.<ref>Brownstein (2004)</ref>

The second period of James's career, which extends from the publication of ''[[The Portrait of a Lady]]'' through the end of the 19th century, features less popular novels, including ''[[The Princess Casamassima]]'', published serially in ''The Atlantic Monthly'' in 1885–1886, and ''[[The Bostonians]]'', published serially in ''[[The Century Magazine|The Century]]'' during the same period. This period also featured James's celebrated Gothic novella, ''[[The Turn of the Screw]]'' (1898).

The third period of James's career reached its most significant achievement in three novels published just around the start of the 20th century: ''[[The Wings of the Dove]]'' (1902), ''[[The Ambassadors]]'' (1903), and ''[[The Golden Bowl]]'' (1904). Critic [[F. O. Matthiessen]] called this "trilogy" James's major phase, and these novels have certainly received intense critical study. The second-written of the books, ''The Wings of the Dove'', was the first published because it was not serialised.<ref>Hazel Hutchison, ''Brief Lives: Henry James''. London: Hesperus Press, 2012: "The elegiac tone of the novel did not appeal to periodical editors, and the novel went straight into book form in 1902, ahead of ''The Ambassadors'', which ran in the ''North American Review'' from January to December 1903 and was published as a book later that same year." Retrieved 1 December 2017.</ref> This novel tells the story of Milly Theale, an American [[inheritance|heiress]] stricken with a serious disease, and her impact on the people around her. Some of these people befriend Milly with honourable motives, while others are more self-interested. James stated in his autobiographical books that Milly was based on Minny Temple, his beloved cousin, who died at an early age of tuberculosis. He said that he attempted in the novel to wrap her memory in the "beauty and dignity of art".<ref>Posnock (1987) p. 114</ref>

===Shorter narratives===
[[File:Lamb House, Rye.jpg|thumb|[[Lamb House]] in [[Rye, East Sussex]], where James lived from 1897 to 1914]]
James was particularly interested in what he called the "beautiful and blest ''nouvelle''", or the longer form of short narrative. Still, he produced a number of very short stories in which he achieved notable compression of sometimes complex subjects. The following narratives are representative of James's achievement in the shorter forms of fiction.{{citation needed|date=January 2014}}
* "[[A Tragedy of Error]]" (1864), short story
* "[[The Story of a Year]]" (1865), short story
* ''[[A Passionate Pilgrim]]'' (1871), novella
* ''[[Madame de Mauves]]'' (1874), novella
* ''[[Daisy Miller]]'' (1878), novella
* ''[[The Aspern Papers]]'' (1888), novella
* ''[[The Lesson of the Master]]'' (1888), novella
* ''[[The Pupil (short story)|The Pupil]]'' (1891), short story
* "[[The Figure in the Carpet]]" (1896), short story
* ''[[The Beast in the Jungle]]'' (1903), novella
* ''An International Episode'' (1878)
* ''Picture and Text''
* ''Four Meetings'' (1885)
* ''A London Life, and Other Tales'' (1889)
* ''[[The Spoils of Poynton]]'' (1896)
* ''Embarrassments'' (1896)
* ''The Two Magics: The Turn of the Screw, Covering End'' (1898)
* ''[[In the Cage]]'' (1898), novella
* ''A Little Tour of France'' (1900)
* ''[[The Sacred Fount]]'' (1901)
* ''[[The Birthplace]]'' (1903)
* ''Views and Reviews'' (1908)
* ''The Finer Grain''  (1910)
* ''The Outcry'' (1911)
* ''Lady Barbarina: The Siege of London, An International Episode and Other Tales'' (1922)
* ''Georgina's Reasons'' (1884), novella

===Plays===

At several points in his career, James wrote plays, beginning with one-act plays written for periodicals in 1869 and 1871<ref>Edel (1990) pp. 75, 89</ref> and a dramatisation of his popular novella ''Daisy Miller'' in 1882.<ref>Edel (1990) p. 121</ref> From 1890 to 1892, having received a bequest that freed him from magazine publication, he made a strenuous effort to succeed on the London stage, writing a half-dozen plays, of which only one, a dramatisation of his novel ''The American'', was produced. This play was performed for several years by a touring repertory company, and had a respectable run in London, but did not earn very much money for James. His other plays written at this time were not produced.{{citation needed|date=February 2019}}

In 1893, however, he responded to a request from actor-manager George Alexander for a serious play for the opening of his renovated St. James's Theatre, and wrote a long drama, ''Guy Domville'', which Alexander produced. A noisy uproar arose on the opening night, 5 January 1895, with hissing from the gallery when James took his bow after the final curtain, and the author was upset. The play received moderately good reviews and had a modest run of four weeks before being taken off to make way for [[Oscar Wilde]]'s ''[[The Importance of Being Earnest]]'', which Alexander thought would have better prospects for the coming season.{{citation needed|date=February 2019}}

After the stresses and disappointment of these efforts, James insisted that he would write no more for the theatre, but within weeks had agreed to write a [[curtain-raiser]] for [[Ellen Terry]]. This became the one-act "Summersoft", which he later rewrote into a short story, "Covering End", and then expanded into a full-length play, ''The High Bid'', which had a brief run in London in 1907, when James made another concerted effort to write for the stage. He wrote three new plays, two of which were in production when the death of [[Edward&nbsp;VII]] on 6 May 1910 plunged London into mourning and theatres closed. Discouraged by failing health and the stresses of theatrical work, James did not renew his efforts in the theatre, but recycled his plays as successful novels. ''[[The Outcry]]'' was a best-seller in the United States when it was published in 1911. During 1890–1893, when he was most engaged with the theatre, James wrote a good deal of theatrical criticism, and assisted Elizabeth Robins and others in translating and producing Henrik Ibsen for the first time in London.<ref>Novick (2007) pp. 15–160 ''et passim''.</ref>

Leon Edel argued in his psychoanalytic biography that James was traumatised by the opening-night uproar that greeted ''Guy Domville'', and that it plunged him into a prolonged depression. The successful later novels, in Edel's view, were the result of a kind of self-analysis, expressed in fiction, which partly freed him from his fears. Other biographers and scholars have not accepted this account, with the more common view being that of F.O. Matthiessen, who wrote: "Instead of being crushed by the collapse of his hopes [for the theatre]... he felt a resurgence of new energy."<ref>Matthiessen and Murdoch (1981) p. 179.</ref><ref>Bradley (1999) p. 21, n</ref><ref>Novick (2007) pp. 219–225 ''et passim''.</ref>

===Nonfiction===
Beyond his fiction, James was one of the more important literary critics in the history of the novel. In his classic essay ''[[Partial Portraits|The Art of Fiction]]'' (1884), he argued against rigid prescriptions on the novelist's choice of subject and method of treatment. He maintained that the widest possible freedom in content and approach would help ensure narrative fiction's continued vitality. James wrote many critical articles on other novelists; typical is his book-length [[Hawthorne (book)|study]] of Nathaniel Hawthorne, which has been the subject of critical debate. Richard Brodhead has suggested that the study was emblematic of James's struggle with Hawthorne's influence, and constituted an effort to place the elder writer "at a disadvantage."<ref>Richard Brodhead. ''The School of Hawthorne'' (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986), 137.</ref> Gordon Fraser, meanwhile, has suggested that the study was part of a more commercial effort by James to introduce himself to British readers as Hawthorne's natural successor.<ref>Gordon Fraser. "Anxiety of Audience: Economies of Readership in James's ''Hawthorne''." ''The Henry James Review'' 34, no. 1 (2013): 1–2.</ref>

When James assembled the ''[[New York Edition]]'' of his fiction in his final years, he wrote a series of prefaces that subjected his own work to searching, occasionally harsh criticism.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rawlings |first=Peter |date=July 1998 |title=Review: The Prefaces of Henry James: Framing the Modern Reader |url=https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A21112582/GPS?u=wikipedia&sid=bookmark-GPS&xid=63e3820d |journal=Essays in Criticism |volume=48 |issue=3 |doi=10.1093/eic/48.3.284 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |via=GALE}}</ref>
[[File:HenryJames1897.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Photograph of Henry James (1897)]]

At 22, James wrote ''The Noble School of Fiction'' for ''The Nation''{{'}}s first issue in 1865. He wrote, in all, over 200 essays and book, art, and theatre reviews for the magazine.<ref>[[Katrina vanden Heuvel|vanden Heuvel]] (1990) p. 5</ref>

For most of his life, James harboured ambitions for success as a playwright. He converted his novel ''The American'' into a play that enjoyed modest returns in the early 1890s. In all, he wrote about a dozen plays, most of which went unproduced. His costume drama ''Guy Domville'' failed disastrously on its opening night in 1895. James then largely abandoned his efforts to conquer the stage and returned to his fiction. In his ''[[Notebooks of Henry James|Notebooks]]'', he maintained that his theatrical experiment benefited his novels and tales by helping him dramatise his characters' thoughts and emotions. James produced a small amount of theatrical criticism, including appreciations of Henrik Ibsen.<ref>[[Allan Wade|Wade]] (1948) pp. 243–260.</ref>{{refn|For a general discussion of James's efforts as a playwright, see Edel's referenced edition of his plays.|group=nb}}

With his wide-ranging artistic interests, James occasionally wrote on the visual arts. He wrote a favourable assessment of fellow expatriate [[John Singer Sargent]], a painter whose critical status has improved markedly since the mid twentieth century. James also wrote sometimes charming, sometimes brooding articles about various places where he visited and lived. His books of travel writing include ''[[Italian Hours]]'' (an example of the charming approach) and ''[[The American Scene]]'' (on the brooding side).{{citation needed|date=January 2014}}

James was one of the great letter-writers of any era. More than 10,000 of his personal letters are extant, and over 3,000 have been published in a large number of collections. A complete edition of James's letters began publication in 2006, edited by Pierre Walker and Greg Zacharias. {{as of|2014}}, eight volumes have been published, covering from 1855 to 1880.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nebraskapress.unl.edu/Catalog/ProductSearch.aspx?ExtendedSearch=false&SearchOnLoad=true&rhl=The+Complete+Letters+of+Henry+James&sj=721&rhdcid=721 |title=Product Search – University of Nebraska Press |access-date=10 February 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222214028/https://www.nebraskapress.unl.edu/Catalog/ProductSearch.aspx?ExtendedSearch=false&SearchOnLoad=true&rhl=The+Complete+Letters+of+Henry+James&sj=721&rhdcid=721 |archive-date=22 February 2014 }}</ref> James's correspondents included contemporaries such as [[Robert Louis Stevenson]], [[Edith Wharton]], and [[Joseph Conrad]], along with many others in his wide circle of friends and acquaintances. The content of the letters range from trivialities to serious discussions of artistic, social, and personal issues.<ref>Edel (1983) volume 4 p. 208</ref>

Very late in life, James began a series of autobiographical works: ''A Small Boy and Others'', ''Notes of a Son and Brother'', and the unfinished ''[[The Middle Years (autobiography)|The Middle Years]]''. These books portray the development of a classic observer who was passionately interested in artistic creation but was somewhat reticent about participating fully in the life around him.<ref name="Dupee 1951"/>