Editing Henry I of England (section)

== Early reign, 1100–1106 ==
=== Taking the throne, 1100 ===
[[File:Coronation of henry i.png|thumb|upright=1.2|A 17th-century [[Claudius Pontificals|manuscript]] drawing of Henry's coronation.]]

On the afternoon of 2 August 1100, King William went hunting in the [[New Forest]], accompanied by a team of huntsmen and Norman nobility, including Henry.<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|pp=102–103}}</ref> An arrow, possibly shot by the baron [[Walter Tirel]], hit and killed William.<ref name=Hollister2003P103>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|p=103}}</ref> Many conspiracy theories have been put forward suggesting that the King was killed deliberately; most modern historians reject these, as hunting was a risky activity and such accidents were common.<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|pp=103–104}}; {{harvnb|Carpenter|2004|p=134}}; Green pp. 39–41.</ref>{{refn|David Carpenter regards William Rufus's death as "almost certainly an accident"; Warren Hollister considers "by far the likeliest explanation for the killing is simply ... that it was a hunting accident"; Judith Green argues that "on balance it seems most likely that Rufus died because of an accident". Emma Mason is more suspicious, giving credence to the theory that William Rufus was murdered, either by Henry or by agents of the French king. The minority view was also held by Austin Poole, who considered Henry a "usurper"; writing earlier in the 20th century, he argued that the facts "look ugly" – in particular Tirel's departure from the scene, Henry's potential motive and apparent disregard for his brother – and "seem to suggest a plot."<ref>{{harvnb|Carpenter|2004|p=134}}; {{harvnb|Hollister|2003|p=104}}; {{harvnb|Mason|2008|pp=228–231}}; {{harvnb|Green|2009|p=41}}; {{harvnb|Poole|1993|pp=113–114}}</ref>|group=nb}} Chaos broke out, and Tirel fled the scene for France, either because he had shot the fatal arrow, or because he had been incorrectly accused and feared that he would be made a scapegoat for the King's death.<ref name=Hollister2003P103/>

Henry rode to Winchester, where an argument ensued as to who now had the best claim to the throne.<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|pp=103–105}}</ref> [[William of Breteuil]] championed the rights of Robert, who was still abroad, returning from the Crusade, and to whom Henry and the barons had given [[Homage (feudal)|homage]] in previous years.<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|p=104}}</ref> Henry argued that, unlike Robert, he had been born to a reigning king and queen, thereby giving him a claim under the right of [[porphyrogeniture]].<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|p=105}}</ref> Tempers flared, but Henry, supported by Henry de Beaumont and Robert of Meulan, held sway and persuaded the barons to follow him.<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|pp=104–105}}; {{harvnb|Green|2009|p=43}}</ref> He occupied [[Winchester Castle]] and seized the royal treasury.<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|pp=104–105}}</ref>

Henry was hastily crowned king in [[Westminster Abbey]] on 5 August by [[Maurice (bishop of London)|Maurice]], the [[bishop of London]], as Anselm, the [[archbishop of Canterbury]], had been exiled by William Rufus, and [[Thomas of Bayeux|Thomas]], the [[archbishop of York]], was in the north of England at [[Ripon]].<ref>Holister, p.106.</ref> In accordance with English tradition and in a bid to legitimise his rule, Henry issued a [[coronation charter]] laying out various commitments.<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|p=19}}; {{harvnb|Green|2009|p=45}}</ref> The new king presented himself as having restored order to a trouble-torn country.<ref>{{harvnb|Green|2009|pp=45–50}}</ref> He announced that he would abandon William's policies towards the Church, which had been seen as oppressive by the clergy; he promised to prevent royal abuses of the barons' property rights, and assured a return to the gentler customs of [[Edward the Confessor]]; he asserted that he would "establish a firm peace" across England and ordered "that this peace shall henceforth be kept".<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|pp=110–112}}</ref>

As well as his existing circle of supporters, many of whom were richly rewarded with new lands, Henry quickly co-opted many of the existing administration into his new royal household.<ref name=Hollister2003P116>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|p=116}}</ref> His brother's chancellor, [[William Giffard]], was made the [[bishop of Winchester]], and the prominent sheriffs [[Urse d'Abetot]], [[Haimo Dapifer]] and Robert Fitzhamon continued to play a senior role in government.<ref name=Hollister2003P116/> By contrast, the unpopular [[Ranulf Flambard]], the [[bishop of Durham]] and a key member of the previous regime, was imprisoned in the [[Tower of London]] and charged with corruption.<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|pp=116–117}}</ref> The late king had left many Church positions unfilled, and Henry set about nominating candidates to these, in an effort to build further support for his new government.<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|p=117}}</ref> The appointments needed to be consecrated, and Henry wrote to Anselm, apologising for having been crowned while the archbishop was still in France and asking him to return at once.<ref>{{harvnb|Green|2009|pp=51–52}}</ref>

=== Marriage to Matilda, 1100 ===
[[File:Matylda zena.jpg|thumb|left|Henry's first wife, [[Matilda of Scotland]]]]

On 11 November 1100 Henry married [[Matilda of Scotland|Matilda]], the daughter of [[Malcolm III of Scotland]],<ref name=Hollister2003P130/> in [[Westminster Abbey]]. Henry was now around 31 years old, but late marriages for noblemen were not unusual in the 11th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|p=43}}; {{harvnb|Thompson|2003|p=134}}; {{harvnb|Green|2009|p=26}}</ref> The pair had probably first met earlier the previous decade, possibly being introduced through Bishop Osmund of Salisbury.<ref>{{harvnb|Thompson|2007|p=24}}; {{harvnb|Huneycutt|2003|p=27}}</ref> Historian Warren Hollister argues that Henry and Matilda were emotionally close, but their union was also certainly politically motivated.<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|pp=126–127}}; {{harvnb|Green|2009|p=58}}</ref>{{refn|The chroniclers Eadmer, Malmesbury and Orderic describe the couple as close, with Eadmer noting that they were in love.<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|p=127}}</ref>|group=nb}} Matilda had originally been named Edith, an Anglo-Saxon name, and was a member of the West Saxon royal family, being the niece of [[Edgar the Ætheling]], the great-granddaughter of [[Edmund Ironside]] and a descendant of [[Alfred the Great]].<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|pp=126–127}}</ref> For Henry, marrying Matilda gave his reign increased legitimacy, and for Matilda, an ambitious woman, it was an opportunity for high status and power in England.<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|pp=127–128}}; {{harvnb|Thompson|2003|p=137}}</ref>

Matilda had been educated in a sequence of convents and may well have taken the vows to formally become a nun, which formed an obstacle to the marriage progressing.<ref name=HollisterPP128-129>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|pp=128–129}}</ref> She did not wish to be a nun and appealed to Anselm for permission to marry Henry, and the Archbishop established a council at [[Lambeth Palace]] to judge the issue.<ref name=HollisterPP128-129/> Despite some dissenting voices, the council concluded that although Matilda had lived in a convent, she had not actually become a nun and was therefore free to marry, a judgement that Anselm then affirmed, allowing the marriage to proceed.<ref name=HollisterPP128-129/>{{refn|Anselm was criticised in some quarters for permitting the royal marriage to proceed.<ref>{{harvnb|Green|2009|p=55}}</ref>|group=nb}} Matilda proved an effective queen for Henry, acting as a regent in England on occasion, addressing and presiding over councils, and extensively supporting the arts.<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|p=130}}; {{harvnb|Thompson|2003|p=137}}</ref> The couple soon had two children, [[Empress Matilda|Matilda]], born in 1102, and [[William Adelin]], born in 1103; it is possible that they also had a second son, Richard, who died young.<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|p=130}}; {{harvnb|Green|2009|p=75}}</ref>{{refn|The only chronicler to suggest a second son is [[Gervase of Canterbury]].<ref name="Green 2009 75">{{harvnb|Green|2009|p=75}}</ref>|group=nb}} Following the birth of these children, the Queen preferred to remain based in Westminster while the King travelled across England and Normandy, either for religious reasons or because she enjoyed being involved in the machinery of royal governance.<ref name="Thompson 2003 137">{{harvnb|Thompson|2003|p=137}}</ref>

Henry had a considerable sexual appetite and enjoyed a substantial number of sexual partners, resulting in many illegitimate children, at least nine sons and 13 daughters, many of whom he appears to have recognised and supported.<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|p=43}}; {{harvnb|Green|2009|pp=26–27, 307–309}}</ref> It was normal for unmarried Anglo-Norman noblemen to have sexual relations with prostitutes and local women, and kings were also expected to have mistresses.<ref name=HollisterP45ThompsonP135>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|p=45}}; {{harvnb|Thompson|2003|p=135}}</ref>{{refn|Bisexuality was also common among this social group, but there is no evidence to suggest that Henry had male partners.<ref name=HollisterP45ThompsonP135/>|group=nb}} Some of these relationships occurred before Henry was married, but many others took place after his marriage to Matilda.<ref>{{harvnb|Thompson|2003|p=135}}</ref> Henry had a wide range of mistresses from a range of backgrounds, and the relationships appear to have been conducted relatively openly.<ref name="Thompson 2003 137"/> He may have chosen some of his noble mistresses for political purposes, but the evidence to support this theory is limited.<ref>{{harvnb|Thompson|2003|pp=130–133}}</ref>

=== Treaty of Alton, 1101–1102 ===
[[File:Henry I Cotton Claudius D. ii, f. 45v..jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|Early 14th-century depiction of Henry]]

By early 1101, Henry's new regime was established and functioning, but many of the Anglo-Norman elite still supported his brother Robert, or would be prepared to switch sides if Robert appeared likely to gain power in England.<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|pp=132–133}}; {{harvnb|Green|2009|p=61}}</ref> In February, Flambard escaped from the Tower of London and crossed the Channel to Normandy, where he injected fresh direction and energy to Robert's attempts to mobilise an invasion force.<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|pp=133–134}}</ref> By July, Robert had formed an army and a fleet, ready to move against Henry in England.<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|pp=134–135}}</ref> Raising the stakes in the conflict, Henry seized Flambard's lands and, with the support of Anselm, Flambard was removed from his position as bishop.<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|pp=135–136}}</ref> The King held court in April and June, where the nobility renewed their oaths of allegiance to him, but their support still appeared partial and shaky.<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|p=125}}</ref>

With the invasion imminent, Henry mobilised his forces and fleet outside [[Pevensey]], close to Robert's anticipated landing site, training some of them personally in how to counter cavalry charges.<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|p=137}}; {{harvnb|Green|2009|p=63}}</ref> Despite English levies and knights owing military service to the Church arriving in considerable numbers, many of his barons did not appear.<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|p=137}}</ref> Anselm intervened with some of the doubters, emphasising the religious importance of their loyalty to Henry.<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|pp=137–138}}</ref> Robert unexpectedly landed further up the coast at [[Portsmouth]] on 20 July with a modest force of a few hundred men, but these were quickly joined by many of the barons in England.<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|p=138}}</ref> Instead of marching into nearby Winchester and seizing Henry's treasury, Robert paused, giving Henry time to march west and intercept the invasion force.<ref name=Hollister2003PP139>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|pp=139–140}}</ref>

The two armies met at [[Alton, Hampshire]], where peace negotiations began, possibly initiated by either Henry or Robert, and probably supported by Flambard.<ref name=Hollister2003PP139/> The brothers then agreed to the [[Treaty of Alton]], under which Robert released Henry from his oath of homage and recognised him as king; Henry renounced his claims on western Normandy, except for Domfront, and agreed to pay Robert £2,000 a year for life; if either brother died without a male heir, the other would inherit his lands; the barons whose lands had been seized by either the King or the Duke for supporting his rival would have them returned, and Flambard would be reinstated as bishop; the two brothers would campaign together to defend their territories in Normandy.<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|pp=142–143}}</ref>{{refn|Most chroniclers reported this sum as 3,000 [[Mark (money)|marks]], equivalent to £2,000, but Orderic recorded the agreed amount as £3,000.<ref>{{harvnb|Green|2009|p=64}}</ref>|group=nb}} Robert remained in England for a few months more with Henry before returning to Normandy.<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|p=145}}</ref>

Despite the treaty, Henry set about inflicting severe penalties on the barons who had stood against him during the invasion.<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|p=143}}</ref> [[William de Warenne, 2nd Earl of Surrey|William de Warenne]], the [[Earl of Surrey]], was accused of fresh crimes, which were not covered by the Alton amnesty, and was banished from England.<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|pp=143–144}}</ref> In 1102 Henry then turned against Robert of Bellême and his brothers, the most powerful of the barons, accusing him of 45 different offences.<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|p=157}}</ref> Robert escaped and took up arms against Henry.<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|pp=157–158}}</ref> Henry besieged Robert's castles at [[Arundel Castle|Arundel]], [[Tickhill Castle|Tickhill]] and [[Shrewsbury Castle|Shrewsbury]], pushing down into the south-west to attack [[Bridgnorth]].<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|pp=158–162}}</ref> His power base in England broken, Robert accepted Henry's offer of banishment and left the country for Normandy.<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|pp=164–165}}</ref>

=== Conquest of Normandy, 1103–1106 ===
[[File:Tinchebray 01.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|The village of [[Tinchebray]] in [[Normandy]] in 2008; the site of the [[Battle of Tinchebray]] in 1106]]

Henry's network of allies in Normandy became stronger during 1103.<ref>{{harvnb|Green|2009|pp=74–77}}</ref> He arranged the marriages of his illegitimate daughters [[Juliane de Fontevrault|Juliane]] and [[Matilda FitzRoy, Countess of Perche|Matilda]] to Eustace of Breteuil and [[Rotrou III, Count of Perche]], respectively, the latter union securing the Norman border.<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|pp=178–179}}</ref> Henry attempted to win over other members of the Norman nobility and gave other English estates and lucrative offers to key Norman lords.<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|pp=182–183}}</ref> Duke Robert continued to fight Robert of Bellême, but the Duke's position worsened, until by 1104, he had to ally himself formally with Bellême to survive.<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|pp=183–184}}</ref> Arguing that the Duke had broken the terms of their treaty, the King crossed over the Channel to Domfront, where he met with senior barons from across Normandy, eager to ally themselves with him.<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|p=184}}; {{harvnb|Green|2009|p=78}}</ref> He confronted the Duke and accused him of siding with his enemies, before returning to England.<ref>{{harvnb|Green|2009|pp=80–81}}</ref>

Normandy continued to disintegrate into chaos.<ref name=Hollister2003P185>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|p=185}}</ref> In 1105, Henry sent his friend Robert Fitzhamon and a force of knights into the Duchy, apparently to provoke a confrontation with Duke Robert.<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|pp=184–185}}; {{harvnb|Green|2009|p=82}}</ref> Fitzhamon was captured, and Henry used this as an excuse to invade, promising to restore peace and order.<ref name=Hollister2003P185/> Henry had the support of most of the neighbouring counts around Normandy's borders, and King Philip of France was persuaded to remain neutral.<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|p=186}}</ref> Henry occupied western Normandy, and advanced east on Bayeux, where Fitzhamon was held.<ref name=Hollister2003P188>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|p=188}}</ref> The city refused to surrender, and Henry besieged it, burning it to the ground.<ref name=Hollister2003P188/> Terrified of meeting the same fate, the town of Caen switched sides and surrendered, allowing Henry to advance on [[Falaise, Calvados]], which he took with some casualties.<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|pp=188–189}}</ref> His campaign stalled, and the King instead began peace discussions with Robert.<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|pp=189–190}}</ref> The negotiations were inconclusive and the fighting dragged on until Christmas, when Henry returned to England.<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|p=190}}; {{harvnb|Green|2009|p=85}}</ref>

Henry invaded again in July 1106, hoping to provoke a decisive battle.<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|p=198}}; {{harvnb|Green|2009|pp=88–89}}</ref> After some initial tactical successes, he turned south-west towards the castle of [[Tinchebray]].<ref name=Hollister203P199>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|p=199}}</ref> He besieged the castle and Duke Robert, supported by Robert of Bellême, advanced from Falaise to relieve it.<ref name=Hollister203P199/> After attempts at negotiation failed, the [[Battle of Tinchebray]] took place, probably on 28 September.<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|pp=199–200}}</ref>{{refn|Contemporary chroniclers provided several possible dates for the battle, suggesting either 27, 28 or 29 September. Modern historians more commonly use 28 September, although historian Judith Green is less certain.<ref>{{harvnb|Green|2009|p=93}}; {{harvnb|Hollister|2003|pp=199–200}}</ref>|group=nb}} The battle lasted around an hour, and began with a charge by Duke Robert's cavalry; the infantry and dismounted knights of both sides then joined the battle.<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|pp=199–201}}</ref> Henry's reserves, led by [[Elias I, Count of Maine]], and [[Alan IV, Duke of Brittany]], attacked the enemy's flanks, routing first Bellême's troops and then the bulk of the ducal forces.<ref name=Hollister2003P201>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|p=201}}</ref> Duke Robert was taken prisoner, but Bellême escaped.<ref name=Hollister2003P201/>

Henry mopped up the remaining resistance in Normandy, and Duke Robert ordered his last garrisons to surrender.<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|pp=204–207}}</ref> Reaching Rouen, Henry reaffirmed the laws and customs of Normandy and took homage from the leading barons and citizens.<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|p=207}}</ref> The lesser prisoners taken at Tinchebray were released, but the Duke and several other leading nobles were imprisoned indefinitely.<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|p=205}}</ref> The Duke's son, [[William Clito]], was only three years old and was released to the care of [[Helias of Saint-Saens]], a Norman baron.<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|p=206}}</ref> Henry reconciled himself with Robert of Bellême, who gave up the ducal lands he had seized and rejoined the royal court.<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|pp=208–209}}</ref> Henry had no way of legally removing the Duchy from his brother, and initially Henry avoided using the title "duke" at all, emphasising that, as the king of England, he was only acting as the guardian of the troubled Duchy.<ref>{{harvnb|Green|2009|p=96}}; {{harvnb|Green|2003|p=64}}</ref>