Editing Heinrich Heine (section)

==Paris years==
[[File:La Liberté guidant le peuple - Eugène Delacroix - Musée du Louvre Peintures RF 129 - après restauration 2024.jpg|thumb|[[Eugène Delacroix|Delacroix]]'s ''Liberty Leading the People'', celebrating France's [[1830 revolution]]]]

===Foreign correspondent===

Heine left Germany for France in 1831, settling in Paris for the remainder of his life. His move was prompted by the [[July Revolution]] of 1830 that had made [[Louis-Philippe]] the  "Citizen King" of the French. Heine shared liberal enthusiasm for the revolution, which he felt had the potential to overturn the conservative political order in Europe.{{sfn|Sammons|1979|pp=150–155}} Heine was also attracted by the prospect of freedom from German censorship and was interested in the new French [[Utopianism|utopian]] political doctrine of [[Saint-Simonianism]]. Saint-Simonianism preached a new social order in which [[meritocracy]] would replace hereditary distinctions in rank and wealth. There would also be female emancipation and an important role for artists and scientists. Heine frequented some Saint-Simonian meetings after his arrival in Paris but within a few years his enthusiasm for the ideology – and other forms of utopianism – had waned.{{sfn|Sammons|1979|pp=159–168}}{{sfn|Robertson|1988|pages=36–38}}

Heine soon became a celebrity in France. Paris offered him a cultural richness unavailable in the smaller cities of Germany. He made many famous acquaintances (the closest were [[Gérard de Nerval]] and [[Hector Berlioz]]) but he always remained something of an outsider. He had little interest in French literature and wrote everything in German, subsequently translating it into French with the help of a collaborator.{{sfn|Sammons|1979|pp=168–171}}
[[File:Heinrich Heine 1837.jpg|thumb|Heine, 1837]]
In Paris, Heine earned money working as the French correspondent for one of Cotta's newspapers, the ''[[Allgemeine Zeitung]]''. The first event he covered was the [[Salon of 1831]]. His articles were eventually collected in a volume entitled ''Französische Zustände'' ("Conditions in France").{{sfn|Sammons|1979|pp=172–183}} Heine saw himself as a mediator between Germany and France. If the two countries understood one another there would be progress. To further this aim he published ''De l'Allemagne'' ("On Germany") in French (begun 1833). In its later German version, the book is divided into two: ''[[Zur Geschichte der Religion und Philosophie in Deutschland]]'' ("On the History of Religion and Philosophy in Germany") and ''Die romantische Schule'' ("The Romantic School").{{sfn|Sammons|1979|pp=188–197}}

Heine was deliberately attacking [[Germaine de Staël|Madame de Staël]]'s book ''[[On Germany|De l'Allemagne]]'' (1813) which he viewed as reactionary, Romantic and obscurantist. He felt de Staël had portrayed a Germany of "poets and thinkers", dreamy, religious, introverted and cut off from the revolutionary currents of the modern world. Heine thought that such an image suited the oppressive German authorities. He also had an [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] view of the past, seeing it as mired in superstition and atrocities. "Religion and Philosophy in Germany" describes the replacement of traditional "spiritualist" religion by a [[pantheism]] that pays attention to human material needs. According to Heine, pantheism had been repressed by Christianity and had survived in German folklore. He predicted that German thought would prove a more explosive force than the French Revolution.{{sfn|Sammons|1979|pp=188–197}}

[[File:Mathilde Heine photography.jpg|thumb|Heine's wife "Mathilde" (Crescence Eugénie Mirat)]]
Heine had had few serious love affairs, but in late 1834 he made the acquaintance of a 19-year-old Paris shopgirl, Crescence Eugénie Mirat, whom he nicknamed "Mathilde". Heine began a relationship with her. She was illiterate, knew no German, and had no interest in cultural or intellectual matters. Nevertheless, she moved in with Heine in 1836 and lived with him for the rest of his life. They were married in 1841.{{sfn|Sammons|1979|pp=197–205}} Condescension typifies the ways in which 'Mathilde' has been presented. For example, Heine's niece, Maria Embden-Heine Rocca, accused her of often disturbing the poet's work in the heat of creativity.<ref>Maria Embden-Heine Rocca, ''Erinnerungen an Heinrich Heine'' (Berlin, 1881)</ref> However, Käthe Freiligrath-Kroecker's memoir of Heine includes the observation that the poet was "positively proud of the fact that his wife was unable to understand what he was to the world."<ref>Käthe Freiligrath-Kroeker, ''Poems Selected from Heinrich Heine'' (London, 1887)</ref> As Keston Sutherland has remarked, "What if she could never understand? What loss was that, to her, or him, or anyone else? Is their love not manifest in the many passages of his poetry that she would never read that luxuriate in the emptiness of understanding...?"<ref>Keston Sutherland, ''Meditations'' (Amsterdam, 2024)</ref>

===Young Germany and Ludwig Börne===
{{moresources|section|date=August 2022}}
Heine and his fellow radical exile in Paris, [[Ludwig Börne]], had become the role models for a younger generation of writers who were given the name "[[Young Germany]]". They included [[Karl Gutzkow]], [[Heinrich Laube]], [[Theodor Mundt]] and [[Ludolf Wienbarg]]. They were liberal, but not actively political. Nevertheless, they still fell foul of the authorities. 

In 1835, Gutzkow published a novel, ''Wally die Zweiflerin'' ("Wally the Sceptic"), which contained criticism of the institution of marriage and some mildly erotic passages. In November of that year, the German Diet consequently banned publication of works by the Young Germans in Germany and – on Metternich's insistence – Heine's name was added to their number. Heine, however, continued to comment on German politics and society from a distance. His publisher was able to find some ways of getting around the censors and he was still free to publish in France.{{sfn|Sammons|1979|pp=205–218}}{{sfn|Robertson|1988|p=20}}

Heine's relationship with his fellow dissident Ludwig Börne was troubled. Since Börne did not attack religion or traditional morality like Heine, the German authorities hounded him less, although they still banned his books as soon as they appeared. 

Börne was the idol of German immigrant workers in Paris. He was a republican, while Heine was not. Heine regarded Börne, with his admiration for [[Robespierre]], as a puritanical neo-Jacobin and remained aloof from him in Paris, which upset Börne, who began to criticise him, mostly semi-privately. In February 1837, Börne died. When Heine heard that Gutzkow was writing a biography of Börne, he began work on his own, severely critical "memorial" of the man.

When the book was published in 1840 it was universally disliked by the radicals and served to alienate Heine from his public. Even his enemies admitted that Börne was a man of integrity, so Heine's ''ad hominem'' attacks on him were viewed as being in poor taste. Heine had made personal attacks on Börne's closest friend [[Jeanette Wohl]], so Jeannette's husband challenged Heine to a duel. It was the last Heine ever fought – he received a flesh wound in the hip. Before fighting, he decided to safeguard Mathilde's future in the event of his death by marrying her.{{sfn|Sammons|1979|pp=233–242}}

[[File:Max Liebermann Illustration Der Rabbi von Bacherach.jpg|thumb|An illustration by [[Max Liebermann]] for a 1920s edition of Heine's historical novel ''Der Rabbi von Bacherach'']]
Heine continued to write reports for Cotta's ''Allgemeine Zeitung'', and, when Cotta died, for his son and successor. One event which really galvanised him was the 1840 [[Damascus Affair]] in which Jews in Damascus had been subject to [[blood libel]] and accused of murdering an old Catholic monk. This led to a wave of anti-Semitic persecution. 

The French government, aiming at imperialism in the Middle East and not wanting to offend the Catholic party, had failed to condemn the outrage. In contrast, the Austrian consul in Damascus had assiduously exposed the blood libel as a fraud. For Heine, this was a reversal of values: reactionary Austria standing up for the Jews while France temporised. Heine responded by dusting off and publishing his unfinished novel about the persecution of Jews in the Middle Ages, ''Der Rabbi von Bacherach''.{{sfn|Sammons|1979|pp=243–244}}

===Political poetry and Karl Marx===
German poetry took a more directly political turn when the new [[Frederick William IV of Prussia|Frederick William IV]] ascended the Prussian throne in 1840. Initially it was thought he might be a "popular monarch" and during this honeymoon period of his early reign (1840–42) censorship was relaxed. This led to the emergence of popular political poets (so-called ''Tendenzdichter''), including [[Hoffmann von Fallersleben]] (author of ''[[Deutschlandlied]]'', the German anthem), [[Ferdinand Freiligrath]] and [[Georg Herwegh]]. Heine looked down on these writers on aesthetic grounds – they were bad poets in his opinion – but his verse of the 1840s became more political too.

Heine's mode was satirical attack: against the Kings of Bavaria and Prussia (he never for one moment shared the belief that Frederick William IV might be more liberal); against the political torpor of the German people; and against the greed and cruelty of the ruling class. The most popular of Heine's political poems was his least typical, ''[[Die schlesischen Weber]]'' ("The Silesian Weavers"), based on the uprising of weavers in [[Peterswaldau]] in 1844.{{sfn|Sammons|1979|pp=253–260}}{{sfn|Robertson|1988|pp=22–23}}

[[File:D02S0150 01JIIz.jpg|thumb|The front page of [[Karl Marx|Marx]]'s ''Vorwärts'', featuring Heine's poem "''Die schlesischen Weber''"]]
In October 1843, Heine's distant relative and German revolutionary, [[Karl Marx]], and his wife [[Jenny von Westphalen]] arrived in Paris after the Prussian government had suppressed Marx's radical newspaper. The Marx family settled in Rue Vaneau. Marx was an admirer of Heine and his early writings show Heine's influence. In December Heine met the Marxes and got on well with them. He published several poems, including ''Die schlesischen Weber'', in Marx's new journal ''Vorwärts'' ("Forwards"). Ultimately Heine's ideas of revolution through sensual emancipation and Marx's [[scientific socialism]] were incompatible, but both writers shared the same negativity and lack of faith in the bourgeoisie.{{Citation needed|date=November 2018|reason=The claim that Heine's ideas of revolution through sensual emancipation and Marx's scientific socialism were incompatible warrants further explanation and a source.}}

In the isolation he felt after the Börne debacle, Marx's friendship came as a relief to Heine, since he did not really like the other radicals. On the other hand, he did not share Marx's faith in the industrial proletariat and remained on the fringes of socialist circles. The Prussian government, angry at the publication of ''Vorwärts'', put pressure on France to deal with its authors, and Marx was deported to Belgium in January 1845. Heine could not be expelled from the country because he had the right of residence in France, having been born under French occupation.{{sfn|Sammons|1979|p=285}} 

Thereafter Heine and Marx maintained a sporadic correspondence, but in time their admiration for each other faded.{{sfn|Sammons|1979|pp=260–265}}{{sfn|Robertson|1988|pages=68–70}} Heine always had mixed feelings about [[communism]]. He believed its radicalism and materialism would destroy much of the European culture that he loved and admired.

In the French edition of "Lutetia" Heine wrote, one year before he died: "This confession, that the future belongs to the Communists, I made with an undertone of the greatest fear and sorrow and, oh!, this undertone by no means is a mask! Indeed, with fear and terror I imagine the time, when those dark [[iconoclasm|iconoclasts]] come to power: with their raw fists they will batter all marble images of my beloved world of art, they will ruin all those fantastic anecdotes that the poets loved so much, they will chop down my [[Lauraceae|Laurel]] forests and plant potatoes and, oh!, the herbs chandler will use my Book of Songs to make bags for coffee and snuff for the old women of the future – oh!, I can foresee all this and I feel deeply sorry thinking of this decline threatening my poetry and the old world order – And yet, I freely confess, the same thoughts have a magical appeal upon my soul which I cannot resist .... In my chest there are two voices in their favour which cannot be silenced .... because the first one is that of logic ... and as I cannot object to the premise "that all people have the right to eat", I must defer to all the conclusions....The second of the two compelling voices, of which I am talking, is even more powerful than the first, because it is the voice of hatred, the hatred I dedicate to this common enemy that constitutes the most distinctive contrast to communism and that will oppose the angry giant already at the first instance – I am talking about the party of the so-called advocates of nationality in Germany, about those false patriots whose love for the fatherland only exists in the shape of imbecile distaste of foreign countries and neighbouring peoples and who daily pour their bile especially on France".<ref>Heine's draft for ''Préface'' in the French edition of ''Lutezia'' (1855), DHA, Vol. 13/1, p. 294.</ref>

In October–December 1843, Heine made a journey to Hamburg to see his aged mother, and to patch things up with Campe with whom he had had a quarrel. He was reconciled with the publisher who agreed to provide Mathilde with an annuity for the rest of her life after Heine's death. Heine repeated the trip with his wife in July–October 1844 to see Uncle Salomon, but this time things did not go so well. It was the last time Heine left France.{{sfn|Sammons|1979|pp=265–268}} At the time, Heine was working on two linked but antithetical poems with Shakespearean titles: ''Deutschland: Ein Wintermärchen'' (''[[Germany. A Winter's Tale]]'') and ''Atta Troll: Ein Sommernachtstraum'' (''Atta Troll: A Midsummer Night's Dream''). The former is based on his journey to Germany in late 1843 and outdoes the radical poets in its satirical attacks on the political situation in the country.{{sfn|Sammons|1979|pp=268–275}} 

''Atta Troll'', begun in 1841 after a trip to the [[Pyrenees]], mocks the literary failings Heine saw in the radical poets, particularly Freiligrath. It tells the story of the hunt for a runaway bear, Atta Troll, who symbolises many of the attitudes Heine despised, including a simple-minded egalitarianism and a religious view which makes God in the believer's image. Atta Troll conceives God as an enormous, heavenly polar bear. Atta Troll's cubs embody the nationalistic views Heine loathed.{{sfn|Robertson|1988|pages=24–26}}

''Atta Troll'' was published in 1847. ''Deutschland'' appeared in 1844 as part of a collection ''Neue Gedichte'' ("New Poems"), which gathered all the verse Heine had written since 1831.{{sfn|Sammons|1979|pp=275–278}} In the same year Uncle Salomon died. This put a stop to Heine's annual subsidy of 4,800 francs. Salomon left Heine and his brothers 8,000 francs each in his will. Heine's cousin Carl, the inheritor of Salomon's business, offered to pay him 2,000 francs a year at his discretion. Heine was furious; he had expected much more from the will and his campaign to make Carl revise its terms occupied him for the next two years.{{sfn|Sammons|1979|pp=278–285}}

In 1844, Heine wrote series of musical [[feuilleton]]s over several different music seasons discussing the music of the day. His review of the musical season of 1844, written in Paris on 25 April 1844, is his first reference to [[Lisztomania (phenomenon)|Lisztomania]], the intense fan frenzy directed toward [[Franz Liszt]] during his performances. Heine was not always honorable in his musical criticism. That same month, he wrote to Liszt suggesting that he might like to look at a newspaper review he had written of Liszt's performance ''before'' his concert; he indicated that it contained comments Liszt would not like.<ref>Walker, Alan, ''Franz Liszt: The virtuoso years, 1811–1847'', Cornell University Press; Rev. ed edition, 1997, p. 164</ref> 

Liszt took this as an attempt to extort money for a positive review and did not meet Heine. Heine's review subsequently appeared on 25 April in ''Musikalische Berichte aus Paris'' and attributed Liszt's success to lavish expenditures on bouquets and to the wild behaviour of his hysterical female "fans". Liszt then broke relations with Heine. Liszt was not the only musician to be blackmailed by Heine for the nonpayment of "appreciation money". Meyerbeer had both lent and given money to Heine, but after refusing to hand over a further 500 francs was repaid by being dubbed "a music corrupter" in Heine's poem ''Die Menge tut es''.<ref>Walker, Alan, ''Franz Liszt: The virtuoso years, 1811–1847'', Cornell University Press; Rev. ed edition, 1997, p. 164</ref>

===Last years: the "mattress-grave"===
[[File:Heinrich Heine, teckning av Charles Gleyre.jpg|right|thumb|Heine on his sickbed, 1851]]

In May 1848, Heine, who had not been well, suddenly fell paralyzed and had to be confined to bed. He would not leave what he called his "mattress-grave" (''Matratzengruft'') until his death eight years later. He also experienced difficulties with his eyes.{{sfn|Sammons|1979|pp=295–297}} It had been suggested that he suffered from [[multiple sclerosis]] or [[syphilis]], although in 1997 it was confirmed through an analysis of the poet's hair that he had suffered from chronic [[lead poisoning]].<ref>''{{ill|Bundesgesundheitsblatt|de}}'' (in German). '''48''' (2): 246–250. 2005.</ref> 

He bore his sufferings stoically and he won much public sympathy for his plight.{{sfn|Sammons|1979|p=297}} His illness meant he paid less attention than he might otherwise have done to the [[1848 revolutions|revolutions which broke out in France and Germany]] in 1848. He was sceptical about the [[Frankfurt Parliament|Frankfurt Assembly]] and continued to attack the King of Prussia.

When the revolution collapsed, Heine resumed his oppositional stance. At first he had some hope [[Napoleon III|Louis Napoleon]] might be a good leader in France, but he soon began to share the opinion of Marx towards him as the new emperor began to crack down on liberalism and socialism.{{sfn|Sammons|1979|pp=298–302}} In 1848 Heine also returned to religious faith. In fact, he had never claimed to be an atheist. Despite officially claiming to be a Lutheran Christian, Heine was [[Skepticism|skeptical]] of organized religion.{{sfn|Sammons|1979|pp=305–310}}

He continued to work from his sickbed: on the collections of poems ''Romanzero'' and ''Gedichte (1853 und 1854)'', on the journalism collected in ''Lutezia'', and on his unfinished memoirs.{{sfn|Sammons|1979|pp=310–338}} During these final years Heine had a love affair with the young Camille Selden, who visited him regularly.{{sfn|Sammons|1979|pp=341–343}} He died on 17 February 1856 and was interred in the Paris [[Cimetière de Montmartre]].

His tomb was designed by Danish sculptor [[Louis Hasselriis]]. It includes Heine's poem ''Where?'' ({{langx|de|Wo?}}) engraved on three sides of the tombstone.

[[File:Das Grab Heines.JPG|thumb|upright|Heine's grave in Paris]]
<poem lang="de" style="margin-left:1em; float:left;">
Wo wird einst des Wandermüden
Letzte Ruhestätte sein?
Unter Palmen in dem Süden?
Unter Linden an dem Rhein?

Werd' ich wo in einer Wüste
Eingescharrt von fremder Hand?
Oder ruh' ich an der Küste
Eines Meeres in dem Sand?

Immerhin! Mich wird umgeben
Gottes Himmel, dort wie hier,
Und als Totenlampen schweben
Nachts die Sterne über mir.</poem>

<poem lang="de" style="margin-left:1em; float:left;">
Where shall I, the wander-wearied,
Find my haven and my shrine? 
Under palms will I be buried?
Under lindens on the Rhine?

Shall I lie in desert reaches,
Buried by a stranger's hand? 
Or upon the well-loved beaches,
Covered by the friendly sand?

Well, what matter! God has given
Wider spaces there than here.
And the stars that swing in heaven
Shall be lamps above my bier.
(translation in verse by L.U.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://archive.org/stream/poemsofheinrichh00heinuoft/poemsofheinrichh00heinuoft_djvu.txt |title=Poems of Heinrich Heine |access-date=27 February 2019}}</ref>)</poem>
{{clear|left}}

His wife Mathilde died in 1883. The couple had no children.{{sfn|Sammons|1979|pp=343–344}}