Editing Haijin (section)

==Qing dynasty==
[[File:Koxinga_territory.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Territory held ''(red)'' or influenced ''(pink)'' by [[Koxinga]] and his [[Southern Ming|Ming partisans]]/[[Kingdom of Tungning|pirates]]]]

===Background===
As the [[Qing Empire|Qing]] [[Qing conquest of the Ming|expanded south]] following [[Shanhai Pass|their victory at Shanhai Pass]], the [[Southern Ming]] were supported by the [[House of Koxinga|Zheng clan]]. [[Zheng Zhilong]] surrendered the passes through Zhejiang in exchange for a wealthy retirement, but his son [[Zheng Chenggong]]—better known by his [[Hokkien language|Hokkien]] honorific Koxinga—continued to resist from [[Xiamen]] and then, after wresting its control from the [[Dutch Formosa|Dutch]], [[Taiwan Island|Taiwan]]. [[House of Koxinga|His dynasty]] then developed it as the independent state of [[Kingdom of Tungning|Tungning]], but were driven from their mainland bases in 1661.

===Policy===
{{see also|Great Clearance}}
The [[Qing dynasty|Qing]] [[Dorgon#Dorgon's regency (1643–1650)|regent]] [[Dorgon|Prince Rui]] resumed the sea ban in 1647, but it was not effective until a more severe order followed in 1661{{sfnp|Shi|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mLBgaa8d4aMC&pg=PA8 8]}} upon the ascension of the [[Kangxi Emperor]]. In an evacuation as the "[[Great Clearance]]" or "Frontier Shift", coastal residents of Guangdong, Fujian, Zhejiang, [[Jiangsu]], and parts of Shandong were required to destroy their property{{sfnp|Shi|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mLBgaa8d4aMC&pg=PA8 8]}} and move inland {{nowrap|30–50 [[Li (unit)|li]]}} (about {{convert|16|-|26|km|abbr=on|sp=us|disp=or|0}}), with [[Qing army|Qing soldiers]] erecting boundary markers and enforcing the death penalty on those beyond it. Ships were destroyed, and foreign trade was again limited to that passing through [[Portuguese Macao|Macao]].{{sfnp|Shi|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mLBgaa8d4aMC&pg=PA8 8]}} Checks and adjustments were made the following year, and the inhabitants of five [[county (China)|counties]]—[[Panyu District|Panyu]], [[Shunde]], [[Xinhui]], [[Dongguan]], and [[Zhongshan]]—moved again the year after that. Following numerous high-level memorials, the evacuation was no longer enforced after 1669.{{sfnp|Hayes|1974|p=119}} In 1684, following the destruction of [[Kingdom of Tungning|Tungning]], other bans were lifted.{{sfnp|Shi|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mLBgaa8d4aMC&pg=PA8 8]}} The year after that, customs offices were established in Guangzhou, Xiamen, Ningbo, and [[Songjiang Town|Songjiang]] to deal with foreign trade.{{sfnp|Shi|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mLBgaa8d4aMC&pg=PA9 9]}}

Repressive Qing policies such as the [[queue (hairstyle)|queue]] caused Chinese traders to [[Chinese diaspora|emigrate]] in such large numbers, however, that the [[Kangxi Emperor]] began to fear the military implications. The immigrant community in [[Jakarta]] was estimated at 100,000 and rumors circulated that a Ming heir was living on [[Luzon]].{{sfnp|Shi|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mLBgaa8d4aMC&pg=PA9 9]}} A ban on trade in the "[[South China Sea|Southern Sea]]" followed in 1717, with tighter port inspections and travel restrictions.{{sfnp|Shi|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mLBgaa8d4aMC&pg=PA9 9]}} Emigrants were ordered to return to China within the next three years upon penalty of death; those emigrating in future were to face the same punishment.{{sfnp|Shi|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mLBgaa8d4aMC&pg=PA9 9]}}

Legal trade in the South China Sea was resumed in 1727,{{sfnp|Shi|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mLBgaa8d4aMC&pg=PA9 9]}} but the [[British East India Company|East India Company]]'s discovery that the prices and duties at Ningbo were both much lower than those at Guangzhou prompted them to begin shifting their trade north from 1755 to 1757.{{sfnp|Shi|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mLBgaa8d4aMC&pg=PA10 10]}} The [[Qianlong Emperor]]'s attempt to discourage this through higher fees failed; in the winter of 1757, he declared that—effective the next year—Guangzhou (then [[romanization of Chinese|romanized]] as "Canton") was to be the only Chinese port permitted to foreign traders,{{sfnp|Shi|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mLBgaa8d4aMC&pg=PA10 10]}} beginning the [[Canton System]], with its [[Cohong]] and [[Thirteen Factories]]. Chinese merchants trading with foreigners, on the other hand, were not affected by any of these regulations.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Waley-Cohen |first1=Joanna |title=The Sextants of Beijing: Global Currents in Chinese History |date=2000 |publisher=W. W. Norton and Company |location=New York, London |isbn=039324251X |pages=99}}</ref>

===Effects===
The initial Qing sea ban curtailed Koxinga's influence on the Chinese mainland and ended with [[Kingdom of Tungning|his state]]'s defeat, which brought [[Taiwan Island|Taiwan]] into the [[Qing Empire]].

Nonetheless, it was quite harmful to the Chinese themselves, as documented in governors' and viceroys' memorials to the throne. Even before the Kangxi Emperor's restrictions, Jin Fu's 1659 memorial to the throne argued that the ban on foreign trade was limiting China's access to silver, harmfully restricting the money supply, and that lost trading opportunities cost Chinese merchants 7 or 8 million [[tael]]s a year.{{sfnp|Von Glahn|1996|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=DNlv4f9tV_AC&pg=PA216 216]}} The policies revived rebellions{{which|date=July 2016}} and piracy along the coast, while also providing a boon for [[Fences in Ming China|black markets]].{{citation needed|date=July 2016}} The [[Great Clearance]] was completely disruptive to China's southern coasts. Of the roughly 16,000 residents of [[Xin'an County (Bao'an)|Xin'an County]] (roughly modern [[Shenzhen]] and [[Hong Kong]]) who were driven inland in 1661, only 1,648 were recorded returning in 1669. Powerful [[typhoon]]s that year and in 1671 further destroyed local communities and discouraged resettlement.{{sfnp|Hayes|1974|p=119}} When trade restrictions were released, Fujian and Guangdong saw enormous outflows of migrants. The conflicts between the [[Punti|former residents]] and the newcomers such as the [[Hakka people|Hakka]] provoked lingering feuds that erupted into [[Punti-Hakka Clan Wars|full-scale war]] in the 1850s and 1860s and that fueled Guangdong's piracy into the 20th century.{{sfnp|Hayes|1974|pp=127–8}}

European countries' trade with China was so extensive that they were forced to risk silver deficits to supply merchants in Asia.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=The Immobile Empire—The first great collision of East and West—the astonishing history of Britain's grand, ill-fated expedition to open China to Western Trade, 1792–94|last=Peyrefitte|first=Alain|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|year=1992}}</ref> As supplies of silver decreased in Europe, Europeans had less ability to purchase highly coveted Chinese goods. Merchants were no longer able to sustain the China trade through profits made by selling Chinese goods in the West and were forced to take bullion out of circulation in Europe to buy goods in China.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Rebellions and Revolutions: China from the 1800s to 2000|last=Gray|first=Jack|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2002|location=New York|pages=22–3}}</ref>

The restrictions imposed by the Qianlong Emperor that established the Canton System were highly lucrative for Guangzhou's Cohong—the merchant [[Howqua]] became one of the world's wealthiest individuals—and normalized Guangzhou's tax base and inflow of foreign silver. Under the canton system, the Qianlong Emperor restricted trade to only licensed Chinese merchants, while the British government on their part issued a monopoly charter for trade only to the [[British East India Company]]. This arrangement was not challenged until the 19th century when the idea of free trade was popularised in the West.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Conrad Schirokauer |last2=Miranda Brown |title=A Brief History of Chinese Civilization |date=2012 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-0495913238 |page=221 |edition=4, illustrated}}</ref> The Canton system did not completely affect Chinese trade with the rest of the world as Chinese merchants, with their large three-masted ocean junks, were heavily involved in global trade. By sailing to and from [[Siam]], [[Indonesia]] and [[Philippines]], they were major facilitators of the global trading system; the era was even described by Carl Trocki as a "Chinese century" of global commerce.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Po  |first=Chung-yam |date=28 June 2013 |publisher=Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg |title=Conceptualizing the Blue Frontier: The Great Qing and the Maritime World in the Long Eighteenth Century |pages=149–150 |url=http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/volltextserver/18877/1/PhD_Dissertation_CyPO.pdf }}</ref> Chinese merchants could also trade freely and legally with Westerners (Spanish and Portuguese) in Xiamen and Macao, or with any country when trade was conducted through ports outside China such as Manila and Batavia.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Peer Vries |title=State, Economy and the Great Divergence: Great Britain and China, 1680s-1850s |date=2015 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1472526403 |pages=353–354}}</ref>  By restricting imports mostly to [[bullion]], however, it created strong pressure on the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|British]]—for whom tea had become [[British tea culture|the national drink]] over the course of the 17th century—to find any means possible to adjust the balance of trade. This turned out to be [[History of opium in China|opium]] grown on [[plantation]]s in [[Company rule in India|India]], which became so lucrative and important that the [[Viceroy of Liangguang|viceroy]] [[Lin Zexu]]'s vigorous enforcement of existing laws against the smuggling of opium prompted the [[First Opium War]] and the beginning of the [[Unequal treaty|unequal treaties]] that restricted Qing sovereignty in the 19th century. The 1842 [[Treaty of Nanking]] opened the ports of Xiamen ("Amoy"), [[Fuzhou]] ("Fuchow"), Ningbo ("Ningpo"), and [[Shanghai]], but legal trade continued to be limited to specified ports to [[Xinhai Revolution|the end of the dynasty]].