Editing Gun control (section)

===United States===
{{main|Gun law in the United States|Gun politics in the United States|Gun culture in the United States|Gun violence in the United States}}

A National Research Council critical review in 2004 found that while some strong conclusions are warranted from current research, the state of our knowledge is generally poor.{{sfn|National Research Council|2005|pp=3, 6}} The result of the scarcity of relevant data is that gun control is one of the most fraught topics in American politics,{{sfn|Branas et al.|2009}} and scholars remain deadlocked on a variety of issues.{{sfn|Branas et al.|2009}} Notably, since 1996, when the [[Dickey Amendment]] was first inserted into the federal spending bill, the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC) has been prohibited from using its federal funding "to advocate or promote gun control", thwarting gun violence research at the agency at the time. The funding provision's author has said that this was an over-interpretation,<ref>{{Cite news|title = The Congressman Who Restricted Gun Violence Research Has Regrets|url = http://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/jay-dickey-gun-violence-research-amendment_561333d7e4b022a4ce5f45bf|newspaper = The Huffington Post|access-date = 2015-10-11|date = 2015-10-06|last1 = Stein|first1 = Sam|archive-date = 2015-10-10 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151010051136/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/jay-dickey-gun-violence-research-amendment_561333d7e4b022a4ce5f45bf|url-status = live}}</ref> but the amendment still had a effect effectively halting federally funded firearm-related research.{{sfn|Betz|Ranney|Wintemute|2016}} Since the amendment, the CDC has continued to research gun violence and publish studies about it,{{sfn|Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|2013}} although their funding for such research has fallen by 96% since 1996, according to [[Mayors Against Illegal Guns]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.apa.org/science/about/psa/2013/02/gun-violence.aspx | title=Gun violence research: History of the federal funding freeze | website=Psychological Science Agenda | date=February 2013 | access-date=27 April 2017 | last=Jamieson |first=Christine | archive-date=2017-05-05  | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170505190021/http://www.apa.org/science/about/psa/2013/02/gun-violence.aspx | url-status=live }}</ref> According to a spokesman, the CDC has limited funding and has not produced any comprehensive study aimed at reducing gun violence since 2001.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://abcnews.go.com/Health/cdc-launched-comprehensive-gun-study-15-years/story?id=39873289 | title=Why the CDC Hasn't Launched a Comprehensive Gun Study in 15 Years | website=ABC News | date=16 June 2016 | access-date=27 April 2017 | last=Barzilay |first=Julie | archive-date=2020-06-27  | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200627134017/https://abcnews.go.com/Health/cdc-launched-comprehensive-gun-study-15-years/story?id=39873289 | url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2007, a global supply of 875&nbsp;million small arms were estimated to be in the hands of civilians, law enforcement agencies, and national armed forces.{{efn|This figure excludes older, pre-automatic small arms from military and law enforcement stockpiles or 'craft-produced' civilian firearms.{{sfn|Karp|2007|p=39}}}}{{sfn|Karp|2007|p=39}} Of these firearms, 650&nbsp;million, or 75%, were estimated to be held by civilians.{{sfn|Karp|2007|p=39}} U.S. civilians account for 270&nbsp;million of this total.{{sfn|Karp|2007|p=39}} A further 200&nbsp;million are controlled by national military forces.{{sfn|Karp|2010|p=102|ps=}} Law enforcement agencies may have some 26&nbsp;million small arms.{{sfn|Karp|2010|p=102|ps=}} Non-state armed groups{{efn|Composed of 'insurgents and militias, including dormant and state-related groups'.{{sfn|Karp|2010|p=101|ps=}}}} have about 1.4&nbsp;million firearms.{{efn|However, as of 2009, active non-state armed groups, numbering about 285,000 combatants, control only about 350,000 small arms.{{sfn|Karp|2010|p=121|ps=}}}}{{sfn|Karp|2010|p=102|ps=}} Finally, gang members hold between 2 and 10&nbsp;million small arms.{{sfn|Karp|2010|p=102|ps=}} Together, the small arms arsenals of non-state armed groups and gangs have been estimated to account for, at most, 1.4% of the global total.{{sfn|Karp|2010|p=101|ps=}}

In 1988 and 1996, gun control laws were enacted in the [[Australia]]n state of [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], both times following [[mass shooting]]s. A 2004 study found that in the context of these laws, overall firearm-related deaths, especially suicides, declined dramatically.{{sfn|Ozanne-Smith et al.|2004}} A 1995 study found preliminary evidence that gun control legislation enacted in [[Queensland]], Australia, reduced suicide rates there.{{sfn|Cantor|Slater|1995}} 

[[File:2019 Gun ownership rates and gun homicide rates - developed world - scatter plot.svg|thumb|Multiple studies show that where people have easy access to firearms, gun-related deaths tend to be more frequent, including by suicide, homicide and unintentional injuries.<ref name=CNN_20211126>{{cite news |last1=Fox |first1=Kara |last2=Shveda |first2=Krystina |last3=Croker |first3=Natalie |last4=Chacon |first4=Marco |title=How US gun culture stacks up with the world |url=https://www.cnn.com/2021/11/26/world/us-gun-culture-world-comparison-intl-cmd/index.html |work=CNN |date=November 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211126193406/https://www.cnn.com/2021/11/26/world/us-gun-culture-world-comparison-intl-cmd/index.html |archive-date=November 26, 2021 |url-status=live |quote=CNN's attribution: Developed countries are defined based on the UN classification, which includes 36 countries. Source: Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (Global Burden of Disease 2019), Small Arms Survey (Civilian Firearm Holdings 2017)}}</ref>|upright=1.2]]
[[File:1970- Gun production - US.svg |thumb|Annual gun production in the U.S. has increased substantially in the 21st century, after having remained fairly level over preceding decades.<ref name=TheTrace_20240409/> By 2023, a majority of U.S. states allowed adults to carry concealed guns in public.<ref name=TheTrace_20240409>{{cite web |last1=Mascia |first1=Jennifer |last2=Brownlee |first2=Chip |title=The Armed Era |url=https://www.thetrace.org/2024/04/columbine-shooting-guns-whats-changed/ |work=The Trace |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240414235456/https://www.thetrace.org/2024/04/columbine-shooting-guns-whats-changed/ |archive-date=April 14, 2024 |date=April 9, 2024 |url-status=live }}</ref>|upright=1.2]]

====Cross-sectional studies====
In 1983, a [[cross-sectional study]] of all 50 U.S. states found that the six states with the strictest gun laws (according to the [[National Rifle Association of America]]) had suicide rates that were lower than in other states by approximately 3 in 100,000 people, and that these states' suicide rates were lower than those of states with the least restrictive gun laws by 4 in 100,000 people.{{sfn|Medoff|Magaddino|1983}} 

A 2003 study published in the ''[[American Journal of Preventive Medicine]]'' looked at the restrictiveness of gun laws and suicide rates in men and women in all 50 U.S. states and found that states whose gun laws were more restrictive had lower suicide rates among both sexes.{{sfn|Conner|Zhong|2003}} In 2004, another study found that the effect of state gun laws on gun-related homicides was "limited".{{sfn|Price|Thompson|Dake|2004}} 

A 2005 study looked at all 50 states in the U.S. and the [[District of Columbia]], and found that no gun laws were associated with reductions in firearm homicide or suicide, but that a "[[shall-issue]]" concealed carry law (mandatory issue of a license when legal criteria met) may be associated with increased firearm homicide rates.{{sfn|Rosengart et al.|2005}} 

A 2011 study found that firearm regulation laws in the United States have "a significant deterrent effect on male suicide".{{sfn|Rodríguez Andrés|Hempstead|2011}}

A 2013 study by the American Medical Association found that in the United States, "a higher number of firearm laws in a state are associated with a lower rate of firearm fatalities in that state."{{sfn|Fleegler et al.|2013}} A 2016 study published in ''[[The Lancet]]'' found that of 25 laws studied, and in the time period examined (2008–2010), nine were associated with reduced firearm mortality (including both homicide and suicide), nine were associated with increased mortality, and seven had an inconclusive association. The three laws most strongly associated with reduced firearm mortality were laws requiring [[universal background check]]s, background checks for ammunition sales, and identification for guns.{{sfn|Kalesan et al.|2016}} In an accompanying commentary, [[David Hemenway]] noted that this study had multiple limitations, such as not controlling for all factors that may influence gun-related deaths aside from gun control laws, and the use of 29 [[explanatory variable]]s in the analysis.{{sfn|Hemenway|2016}}

Other studies comparing gun control laws in different U.S. states include a 2015 study which found that in the United States, "stricter state firearm legislation is associated with lower discharge rates" for nonfatal gun injuries.{{sfn|Simonetti et al.|2015}} A 2014 study that also looked at the United States found that children living in states with stricter gun laws were safer.{{sfn|Safavi et al.|2014}} 

A study looking specifically at suicide rates in the United States found that the four handgun laws examined ([[waiting periods]], universal background checks, gun locks, and open carrying regulations) were associated with "significantly lower firearm suicide rates and the proportion of suicides resulting from firearms". The study also found that all four of these laws (except the waiting-period one) were associated with reductions in the overall suicide rate.{{sfn|Anestis|Anestis|2015}}

Another study, published the same year, found that states with permit to purchase, registration, and/or license laws for handguns had lower overall suicide rates, as well as lower firearm suicide rates.{{sfn|Anestis et al.|2015}}  

2014 study found that states that required licensing and inspections of gun dealers tended to have lower rates of gun homicides.{{sfn|Irvin et al.|2014}} Another study published the same year, analyzing [[panel data]] from all 50 states, found that stricter gun laws may modestly reduce [[gun deaths]].{{sfn|Lanza|2014}} 

2016 study found that U.S. military veterans tend to commit suicide with guns more often than the general population, thereby possibly increasing state suicide rates, and that "the tendency for veterans to live in states without handgun legislation may exacerbate this phenomenon".{{sfn|Anestis|Capron|2016}} California has exceptionally strict gun sales laws, and a 2015 study found that it also had the oldest guns recovered in crimes of any states in the U.S. The same study concluded that "These findings suggest that more restrictive gun sales laws and gun dealer regulations do make it more difficult for criminals to acquire new guns first purchased at retail outlets."{{sfn|Pierce|Braga|Wintemute|2015}}

[[File:2000- Outcomes of active shooter attacks.svg|thumb|upright=1.25| A ''New York Times'' study reported how outcomes of active shooter attacks varied with actions of the attacker, the police (42% of total incidents), and bystanders (including a "good guy with a gun" outcome in 5.1% of total incidents).<ref name=NYTimes_20220622>{{cite news |last1=Buchanan |first1=Larry |last2=Leatherby |first2=Lauren |title=Who Stops a 'Bad Guy With a Gun'? |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2022/06/22/us/shootings-police-response-uvalde-buffalo.html |work=The New York Times |date=June 22, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220622111531/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2022/06/22/us/shootings-police-response-uvalde-buffalo.html |archive-date=June 22, 2022 |quote=Data source: Advanced Law Enforcement Rapid Response Training Center |url-status=live }}</ref>]]
2016 study found that stricter state gun laws in the United States reduced suicide rates.{{sfn|Kposowa|Hamilton|Wang|2016}}

Another 2016 study found that U.S. states with lenient gun control laws had more gun-related child injury hospital admissions than did states with stricter gun control laws.{{sfn|Tashiro et al.|2016}} 

2017 study found that suicide rates declined more in states with universal background check and mandatory waiting period laws than in states without these laws.{{sfn|Anestis|Anestis|Butterworth|2017}} 

Another 2017 study found that states without universal background check and/or waiting period laws had steeper increases in their suicide rates than did states with these laws.{{sfn|Anestis|Selby|Butterworth|2017}} 

A third 2017 study found that "waiting period laws that delay the purchase of firearms by a few days reduce gun homicides by roughly 17%".{{sfn|Luca|Malhotra|Poliquin|2017}} 

A 2017 study in the ''[[The Economic Journal|Economic Journal]]'' found that mandatory handgun purchase delays reduced "firearm-related suicides by between 2 and 5 percent with no statistically significant increase in non-firearm suicides", and were "not associated with statistically significant changes in homicide rates".{{sfn|Edwards et al.|2018}} 

Another study in 2017 showed that laws banning gun possession by people subject to intimate partner violence restraining orders, and requiring such people to give up any guns they have, were associated with lower intimate partner homicide rates.{{sfn|Diez et al.|2017}} 

2021 study found that firearm purchase delay laws reduced homicide; the authors suggested that it was driven by reductions in gun purchases by impulsive customers.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Koenig|first1=Christoph|last2=Schindler|first2=David|date=2021|title=Impulse Purchases, Gun Ownership, and Homicides: Evidence from a Firearm Demand Shock|journal=The Review of Economics and Statistics|volume=105 |issue=5 |pages=1271–1286|doi=10.1162/rest_a_01106|s2cid=243676146|issn=0034-6535|doi-access=free|hdl=10419/207224|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

====Reviews====

In 2015, [[Daniel Webster (academic)|Daniel Webster]] and [[Garen Wintemute]] reviewed studies examining the effectiveness of gun laws aimed at keeping guns out of the hands of high-risk individuals in the United States. They found that some laws prohibiting gun possession by people under domestic violence restraining orders or who had been convicted of violent [[misdemeanor]]s were associated with lower violence rates, as were laws establishing more procedures to see if people were prohibited from owning a gun under these laws. They also found that multiple other gun regulations intended to prevent prohibited individuals from obtaining guns, such as "rigorous permit-to-purchase" laws and "comprehensive background checks", were "negatively associated with the diversion of guns to criminals".{{sfn|Webster|Wintemute|2015}}

A 2016 systematic review found that restrictive gun licensing laws were associated with lower gun injury rates, while concealed carry laws were not significantly associated with rates of such injuries.{{sfn|Crandall et al.|2016}} Another systematic review found that stricter gun laws were associated with lower gun homicide rates; this association was especially strong for background check and permit-to-purchase laws.{{sfn|Lee et al.|2016}}

A 2020 review of almost 13,000 studies by RAND Corporation found only 123 that met their criteria of methodological rigor, "a surprisingly limited base of rigorous scientific evidence". Only 2 of the 18 gun policies examined had supporting evidence. Among the policies for which RAND found supporting evidence were that child-access prevention laws reduce firearm injuries and deaths among children and that "stand-your-ground" laws increase firearm homicides. RAND also noted that the limited evidence currently available "does not mean that these policies are ineffective&nbsp;... Instead, it partly reflects shortcomings in the contributions that science has made to policy debates."<ref>{{Cite web |title=What Science Tells Us About the Effects of Gun Policies |url=https://www.rand.org/research/gun-policy/key-findings/what-science-tells-us-about-the-effects-of-gun-policies.html |access-date=2022-10-10 |publisher=RAND Corporation |language=en}}</ref>

====Studies of individual laws====
Other studies have examined trends in firearm-related deaths before and after gun control laws are either enacted or repealed. A 2004 study in the ''[[Journal of the American Medical Association]]'' found evidence that [[child access prevention law]]s were "associated with a modest reduction in suicide rates among youth aged 14 to 17 years".{{sfn|Webster et al.|2004}} 

Two 2015 studies found that the permit-to-purchase law passed in [[Connecticut]] in 1995 was associated with a reduction in firearm suicides and homicides.{{sfn|Crifasi et al.|2015}}{{sfn|Rudolph et al.|2015}} One of these studies also found that the repeal of Missouri's permit-to-purchase law was associated with "a 16.1% increase in firearm suicide rates",{{sfn|Crifasi et al.|2015}} and a 2014 study by the same research team found that the repeal of this law was associated with a 16% increase in homicide rates.{{sfn|Webster|Crifasi|Vernick|2014}} 

A 2000 study designed to assess the effectiveness of the [[Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act]] found that the law was not associated with reductions in overall homicide or suicide rates, but that it was associated with a reduction in the firearm suicide rate among individuals aged 55 or older.{{sfn|Ludwig|Cook|2000}} 

A 1991 study looked at [[Washington, D.C.]]'s [[Firearms Control Regulations Act of 1975]], which banned its residents from owning all guns except certain [[shotgun]]s and sporting [[rifle]]s, which were also required to be stored unloaded, disassembled, or with a [[trigger lock]] in their owners' homes.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/11/sports/basketball/11arenas.html | title=Washington's Gun Past Affects Arenas's Future | website=New York Times | date=10 January 2010 | access-date=6 December 2015 | author=Abrams, Jonathan | archive-date=2017-06-30  | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630060952/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/11/sports/basketball/11arenas.html | url-status=live }}</ref> The study found that the law's enactment was associated with "a prompt decline in homicides and suicides by firearms in the District of Columbia".{{sfn|Loftin et al.|1991}} A 1996 study reanalyzed this data and reached a significantly different conclusion as to the effectiveness of this law.{{sfn|Britt|Kleck|Bordua|1996}}

====Other studies and debate====
In 1993, Kleck and Patterson analyzed the impact of 18 major types of gun control laws on every major type of gun-involved crime or violence (including suicide) in 170 U.S. cities, and found that gun laws generally had no significant effect on violent crime rates or suicide rates.{{sfn|Kleck|Patterson|1993}}{{update after|2020|10|9}} Similarly, a 1997 study found that gun control laws had only a small influence on the rate of gun deaths in U.S. states compared to socioeconomic variables like poverty and unemployment.{{sfn|Kwon et al.|1997}}{{update after|2020|2}}

Philosophy professor [[Michael Huemer]] argues that gun control may be morally wrong, even if its outcomes would be positive, because individuals have a ''prima facie'' right to own a gun for self-defense and recreation.{{sfn|Huemer|2003}}

A 2007 article published by the ''Journal of Injury Prevention'' states that approximately 60% of firearms used to commit violent crime can be traced to 1% of licensed dealers.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{Cite journal |last1=Vernick |first1=Jon S |last2=Webster |first2=Daniel W |date=2007 |title=Policies to prevent firearm trafficking |journal=Injury Prevention |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=78–79 |doi=10.1136/ip.2007.015487 |issn=1353-8047 |pmc=2610592 |pmid=17446245 }}</ref> This finding indicates that, although gun laws effectively regulate approximately 99% of purchases made from licensed dealers, a majority of gun-related violent crimes are perpetrated using guns that were purchased in violation of regulations. The ''Journal of Injury Prevention'' article advocates for increased monitoring of gun vendors in tandem with the optimization of gun sale regulation, as a means to decrease violent crime perpetrated with a firearm.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

In 2009, the [[Public Health Law Research]] program, an independent organization, published several evidence briefs summarizing the research assessing the effect of a specific law or policy on public health, that concern the effectiveness of various laws related to gun safety. Among their findings:

* There is not enough evidence to establish the effectiveness of "shall issue" laws, as distinct from "may issue" laws, as a public health intervention to reduce violent crime.<ref>{{cite web |title='Shall Issue' Concealed Weapons Laws, Public Health Law Research 2009 |url=http://publichealthlawresearch.org/product/%E2%80%9Cshall-issue%E2%80%9D-concealed-weapons-laws/%22shall-issue%22-concealed-weapons-law |access-date=October 4, 2017 |website=Public Health Law Research}} {{Dead link|date=January 2020|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}</ref>
* There is insufficient evidence to determine the effectiveness of waiting period laws as public health interventions aimed at preventing gun-related violence and suicide.<ref>{{cite web |title=Waiting Period Laws for Gun Permits |website=Public Health Law Research |url=http://publichealthlawresearch.org/product/waiting-period-laws-gun-permits |access-date=October 4, 2017}}</ref>
* Although child access prevention laws may represent a promising intervention for reducing gun-related morbidity and mortality among children, there is currently insufficient evidence to validate their effectiveness as a public health intervention aimed at reducing gun-related harms.<ref>{{cite web |title=Child Access Prevention (CAP) Laws for Guns |website=Public Health Law Research |url=http://publichealthlawresearch.org/product/child-access-prevention-cap-laws-guns |access-date=October 4, 2017 }}</ref>
* There is insufficient evidence to establish the effectiveness of such bans as public health interventions aimed at reducing gun-related harms.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bans on Specific Guns and Ammunition |website=Public Health Law Research |url=http://publichealthlawresearch.org/product/bans-specific-guns-and-ammunition |access-date=October 4, 2017}}</ref>
* There is insufficient evidence to validate the effectiveness of firearm licensing and registration requirements as legal interventions aimed to reduce firearm related harms.<ref>{{cite web |title=Gun Registration and Licensing Requirements |website=Public Health Law Research |url=http://publichealthlawresearch.org/product/gun-registration-and-licensing-requirements |access-date=October 4, 2017}}</ref>

[[RAND Corporation]] did a study that demonstrates that background checks may decrease suicides and violent crime; child-access prevention laws may decrease the number of suicides and unintentional injuries and deaths; minimum age requirements may decrease suicides; and prohibitions associated with mental illness may decrease suicides and violent crimes. On the other hand, concealed-carry laws may increase violent crimes and suicides, while stand-your-ground laws may increase violent crime. Bans on the sale of assault weapons and high-capacity magazines may increase the sale price for these items.<ref>{{citation|publisher=RAND Corporation|access-date=August 11, 2019|title=Facts About the Effects of Gun Policies Are Elusive but Important|url=https://www.rand.org/research/gun-policy.html|archive-date=2019-08-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190808122420/https://www.rand.org/research/gun-policy.html|url-status=live}}</ref> An August 2019 article in ''[[Business Insider]]'' entitled "Gun control really works" looked at a dozen studies by the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]], ''[[JAMA (journal)|The Journal of the American Medical Association]]'', Rand Corporation, the journal ''[[Preventive Medicine (journal)|Preventive Medicine]],'' [[Everytown for Gun Safety]], [[Johns Hopkins University]], and others. They concluded that mirroring the [[Firearms regulation in Switzerland|firearms regulations in Switzerland]] such as banning the sale of new assault weapons, denying concealed-carry licenses to some individuals, and prohibiting firearm sales to people convicted of multiple alcohol-related offenses will decrease gun-related deaths and injuries.<ref>{{cite web |website=Business Insider |date=August 6, 2019 |access-date=August 6, 2019|title=Gun control really works. Science has shown time and again that it can prevent mass shootings and save lives. |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/gun-control-research-how-policies-can-reduce-deaths-2019-8 |first1=Aylin |last1=Woodward |first2=Erin |last2=Snodgrass}}</ref>