Editing Gloster Meteor (section)

==Design==
===Overview===
[[File:Gloster Meteor F8, UK - Air Force AN2059465.jpg|thumb|Meteor F.8 in flight at [[RAF Greenham Common]], May 1986]]
[[File:Gloster Meteor F.8 Cockpit (4746340408).jpg|thumb|Meteor F.8 cockpit]]
The first operational version of the Meteor, designated as the Meteor F.1, apart from the minor airframe refinements, was a straightforward "militarisation" of the earlier F9/40 prototypes.<ref name = "shack 29">Shacklady 1962, p. 29.</ref> The dimensions of the standard Meteor F.1 were {{convert|41|ft|3|in|m|abbr=on}} long with a span of {{convert|43|ft|0|in|m|abbr=on}}, with an empty weight of {{convert|8140|lb|kg|abbr=on}} and a maximum takeoff weight of {{convert|13795|lb|kg|abbr=on}}.<ref name="James 304-5"/> Despite the revolutionary turbojet propulsion used,<ref>Flight 25 October 1945, p. 444.</ref> the design of the Meteor was relatively orthodox and did not take advantage of many aerodynamic features used on other, later jet fighters, such as [[swept wing]]s; the Meteor shared a broadly similar basic configuration to its German equivalent, the [[Messerschmitt Me 262]], which was also aerodynamically conventional.<ref>Pavelec 2007, pp. 120–121.</ref>

It was an all-metal aircraft with a tricycle [[Landing gear|undercarriage]] and conventional low, straight wings with mid-mounted turbojet engines and a high-mounted [[tailplane]] clear of the jet exhaust.{{#tag:ref|With no weight from propellers and the more rearward placement of the engines, the Meteor's centre of gravity was aft of the typical fighters of the era, thus leading to the adoption of the tricycle undercarriage arrangement.<ref name = "shackley 11">Shacklady 1962, p. 11.</ref>|group=Note}}{{#tag:ref|While there had been concerns over the structural strength from the high tailplane position selected, Carter was aware of the instability risks that the jet exhaust could generate, so it was decided to mount the tailplane as high as possible on the fin.<ref name = "shackley 11"/>|group=Note}} The Meteor F.1 exhibited some problematic flying characteristics typical of early jet aircraft; it suffered from stability problems at high [[transonic]] speeds, large trim changes, high [[Joystick|stick]] forces and self-sustained yaw instability (snaking) caused by airflow separation over the thick tail surfaces.<ref name="Loftin">Loftin, L.K. Jr. [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/pao/History/SP-468/ch11-2.htm Chapter 11: Early Jet Fighters] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170115222926/http://www.hq.nasa.gov/pao/History/SP-468/ch11-2.htm |date=15 January 2017 }} ''NASA SP-468. Quest for Performance: The Evolution of Modern Aircraft.'' (1985) NASA. Retrieved: 24 April 2006.</ref> The longer fuselage of the Meteor T.7, a two-seater trainer, significantly reduced the aerodynamic instability that the early Meteors were known for.<ref>Shacklady 1962, pp. 54, 66–67.</ref>

Later Meteor variants would see a large variety of changes from the initial Meteor F.1 introduced to service in 1944. Much attention was given to raising the aircraft's top speed, often by improving the airframe's aerodynamic qualities, incorporating the latest engine developments, and increasing the strength of the airframe.<ref name = "shack 29"/><ref>Shacklady 1962, pp. 51–53.</ref> The Meteor F.8, which emerged in the late 1940s, was considered to have substantially improved performance over prior variants;<ref>Flight 6 October 1949, p. 465.</ref> the F.8 was reportedly the most powerful single-seat aircraft flying in 1947, capable of ascending to {{convert|40000|ft|||}} within five minutes.<ref>Flight 6 October 1949, pp. 465, 469.</ref>

===Construction===
From the outset, each Meteor was constructed from several modular sections or separately produced units, a deliberate design choice to allow for production to be dispersed and for easy disassembly for transport.<ref>Shacklady 1962, p. 12, 29.</ref> Each aircraft comprised five main sections: nose, forward fuselage, central section, rear fuselage and tail units; the wings were also built out of lengthwise sections.<ref>''Flight'' 25 October 1945, p. 445.</ref> The forward section contained the pressure cabin, gun compartments, and forward undercarriage. The centre section incorporated much of the structural elements, including the inner wing, engine nacelles, fuel tank, ammunition drums, and main undercarriage. The rear fuselage was of a conventional semi-monocoque structure. Various aluminium alloys were the primary materials used throughout the structure of the Meteor, such as the stressed [[duralumin]] skin.<ref name="auto1">Shacklady 1962, p. 12.</ref>

Across the Meteor's production life, various different companies were subcontracted to manufacture aircraft sections and major components; due to the wartime workload on producing fighter aircraft such as the [[Hawker Hurricane]] and [[Hawker Typhoon]], neither Gloster nor the wider [[Hawker Siddeley|Hawker Siddeley Group]] were able to internally meet the production demand of 80 aircraft per month.<ref name = "shack 13">Shacklady 1962, p. 13.</ref> [[Bristol Tramways]] produced the forward fuselage of the aircraft, the [[Standard Motor Company]] manufactured the central fuselage and inner wing sections, the [[Pressed Steel Company]] produced the rear fuselage, and [[Parnall|Parnall Aircraft]] made the tail unit.<ref>Butler and Buttler 2006, pp. 14.</ref> Other main subcontractors included [[Boulton Paul Aircraft]], [[Excelsior Motor Radiator Company]], [[Bell Punch]], [[Turner Manufacturing Company]], and [[Charlesworth Bodies]]; as many of these firms had little or no experience producing aircraft, both quality and interchangeability of components were maintained by contractually enforced adherence to Gloster's original drawings.<ref>Shacklady 1962, pp. 13–14.</ref>

From the Meteor F.4 onwards, Armstrong Whitworth began completing whole units at their [[Coventry]] facility in addition to Gloster's own production line.<ref name="auto2">Shacklady 1962, p. 54.</ref> Belgian aviation firm [[Avions Fairey]] also produced the Meteor F.8 under licence from Gloster for the [[Belgian Air Force]]; a similar licence manufacturing arrangement was made with Dutch company [[Fokker]] to meet the [[Royal Netherlands Air Force]]'s order.<ref name = "shack 74">Shacklady 1962, p. 74.</ref>

===Engines===
[[File:Welland183- (1).JPG|thumb|[[Rolls-Royce Welland]] engine on display. The rear of the engine is at the left.]]

The ''Meteor F.1'' was powered by two [[Rolls-Royce Welland]] turbojet engines, Britain's first production jet engines, which were built under licence from Whittle's designs.<ref name="auto" /> The Meteor embodied the advent of practical jet propulsion; in the type's service life, both military and civil aviation manufacturers rapidly integrated turbine engines into their designs, favouring its advantages such as smoother running and greater power output.<ref>Geoffery 19 July 1945, p. 73.</ref> The Meteor's engines were considerably more practical than those of the German Me 262 as, unlike the Me 262, the engines were embedded into the wing in nacelles between the front and rear spars rather than underslung, saving some weight due to shorter landing gear legs and less massive spars.<ref name = "geff 70-71">Geoffery 19 July 1945, pp. 70–71.</ref>{{#tag:ref|Carter had considered and rejected placing the engines within the fuselage or an underslung arrangement due to the issue of accessibility; having the engines underneath the wings would have imposed weight limitations by forcing longer undercarriage legs and a heavier spar structure to be adopted in turn.<ref>Shacklady 1962, pp. 10–11.</ref>|group=Note}}

The [[Power Jets W.2#Variants|W.2B/23C]] engines upon which the Welland was based produced {{convert|1700|lbf|kN|abbr=on}} of thrust each, giving the aircraft a maximum speed of {{convert|417|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} at {{convert|3000|m|ft|order=flip}} and a range of {{convert|1000|miles|km}}.<ref name="James 304-5"/> It incorporated a hydraulically driven engine starter developed by Rolls-Royce, which was automated following the press of a starter button in the cockpit.{{#tag:ref|The F9/40 prototypes and some early production Meteors lacked the automatic starting system fitted on most aircraft, requiring a considerably more complicated procedure to be followed.<ref name="auto" />|group=Note}} The engines also drove hydraulic and vacuum pumps as well as a generator via a [[Dowty Rotol|Rotol]] gearbox fixed on the forward wing spar;<ref name="auto"/> the cockpit was also heated by [[bleed air]] from one of the engines.<ref name="auto1"/> The acceleration rate of the engines was manually controlled by the pilot; rapid engine acceleration would frequently induce [[compressor stall]]s early on; the likelihood of compressor stalls was effectively eliminated upon further design refinements of both the Welland engine and the Meteor itself.<ref>Butler and Buttler 2006, p. 17.</ref> At high speeds the Meteor had a tendency to lose directional stability, often during unfavourable weather conditions, leading to a "snaking" motion; this could be easily resolved by throttling back to reduce speed.<ref>Butler and Buttler 2006, p. 27.</ref>

Based upon designs produced by Power Jets, Rolls-Royce produced more advanced and powerful turbojet engines. Beyond numerous improvements made to the Welland engine that powered the early Meteors, Rolls-Royce brought the Rover B.26, a radical re-design from the W.2B/500 under Adrian Lombard at Rover, into service as the Derwent. The Derwent engine, and the re-designed Derwent V, a scaled down version of the [[Rolls-Royce Nene|Nene]], was installed on many of the later production Meteors; the adoption of this new powerplant led to considerable performance increases.<ref name="auto" /><ref name = "geff 70-71"/>{{#tag:ref|The confidence of Rolls-Royce's engineers in the performance of the Derwent 5 engines led to the engine proceeding to production straight from the drawing board, in advance of any practice testing.<ref name = "shack 53">Shacklady 1962, p. 53.</ref>|group=Note}} The Meteor often served as the basis for the development of other early turbojet designs; a pair of Meteor F.4s were sent to Rolls-Royce to aid in their experimental engine trials, ''RA435'' being used for reheat testing, and ''RA491'' being fitted with the [[Rolls-Royce Avon]], an axial-flow engine.<ref name="auto" /><ref>[http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1949/1949%20-%201497.html "Hotter and Faster."] ''Flight'', 1 September 1949. p. 203.</ref> From their involvement in the development of the Meteor's engines, Armstrong-Siddeley, [[Bristol Aeroplane Company|Bristol Aircraft]], [[Metropolitan-Vickers]] and de Havilland also independently developed their own gas turbine engines.<ref>Shacklady 1962, pp. 42–43.</ref>

===Performance===
[[File:hunter and meteor at kemble arp.jpg|thumb|Meteor NF.11 (right) flying with a [[Hawker Hunter]] T7A at the [[Cotswold Air Show]] in 2009]]
During development, sceptical elements of the Air Ministry had expected mature piston-powered aircraft types to exceed the capabilities of the Meteor in all respects except that of speed; thus, the performance of early Meteors was considered favourable for the interceptor mission, being capable of out-diving the majority of enemy aircraft.<ref>Butler and Buttler 2006, pp. 13–14.</ref> The conclusion of in-service trials conducted between the Meteor F.3. and the [[Hawker Tempest|Hawker Tempest V]] was that the performance of the Meteor exceeded the Tempest in almost all respects and that, barring some manoeuvrability issues, the Meteor could be considered a capable all-round fighter.<ref>Butler and Buttler 2006, pp. 27–28.</ref> Pilots formerly flying piston-engine aircraft often described the Meteor as being exciting to fly. British politician [[Norman Tebbit]] stated of his experience flying the Meteor in the RAF: "Get airborne, up with the wheels, hold it low until you were about 380 knots, pull it up and she would go up, well we thought then, like a rocket".<ref>BBC4 "Jet! When Britain Ruled the Skies." Episode 1. Military Marvels. First broadcast 22 August 2012</ref>

Early jet engines consumed a lot more fuel than the piston engines they replaced so the Welland engines imposed considerable flight-time limitations on the Meteor F.1, leading to the type being used for local interception duties only. In the post-war environment, there was considerable pressure to increase the range of interceptors to counter the threat of bombers armed with [[nuclear weapon]]s.<ref name = "shack 129">Shacklady 1962, p. 129.</ref> The long-term answer to this question was [[Aerial refueling|in-flight refuelling]]; several Meteors were provided to [[Cobham plc|Flight Refuelling Limited]] for trials of the newly developed [[Aerial refueling#Probe-and-drogue 2|probe-and-drogue]] refuelling techniques. This capability was not incorporated in service Meteors, which had already been supplanted by more modern interceptor aircraft at this point.<ref>Shacklady 1962, pp. 129–131.</ref>

A total of 890 Meteors were lost in RAF service (145 of these crashes occurring in 1953 alone), resulting in the deaths of 450 pilots. Contributory factors in the number of crashes were the poor brakes, failure of the landing gear, the high fuel consumption and consequent short flight endurance (less than one hour) causing pilots to run out of fuel, and difficult handling with one engine out due to the widely set engines. The casualty rate was exacerbated by the lack of ejection seats in early series Meteors;<ref>{{citation|first=Miguel|last=Vasconcelos|title=Civil Airworthiness Certification: Former Military High-Performance Aircraft|publisher=Federal Aviation Administration|year=2013|pages=2–40}}</ref> the much higher speed that the aircraft was capable of meant that to bail out pilots might have to overcome high [[g force]]s and fast-moving airflow past the cockpit; there was also a greater likelihood of the pilot striking the horizontal tailplane.<ref>Marks, Paul. [http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20150521-the-rocket-powered-life-saving-seat "The Rocket-Powered Rise of the Ejector Seat."] BBC News, 21 May 2015.</ref> Ejection seats were fitted in the later F.8, FR.9, PR.10 and some experimental Meteors.<ref name = "shack 73">Shacklady 1962, p. 73.</ref><ref>Kenyon, Dennis. "The Night It Rained Meteors". ''Loop Aviation'', June 2008.</ref>{{page needed|date=March 2022}} The difficulty of bailing out of the Meteor had been noted by pilots during development, reporting several contributing design factors such as the limited size and relative position of the cockpit to the rest of the aircraft, and difficulty in using the two-lever jettisonable hood mechanism.<ref>Butler and Buttler 2006, p. 18.</ref>