Editing George Washington (section)

==Commander in chief of the army (1775–1783)==
{{further|Military career of George Washington}}
[[File:George Washington, 1776.jpg|thumb|alt=Formal painting of General George Washington, standing in uniform, as commander of the Continental Army|''General Washington, Commander of the Continental Army'', a 1776 portrait by [[Charles Willson Peale]]]]
The [[American Revolutionary War]] broke out on April 19, 1775 with the [[Battles of Lexington and Concord]].{{sfn|Taylor|2016|p=132}} Washington hastily departed Mount Vernon on May 4 to join the [[Second Continental Congress]] in [[Philadelphia]].{{sfn|Chernow|2010|p=182}} On June 14, Congress created the [[Continental Army]] and [[John Adams]] nominated Washington as its [[commander-in-chief]], mainly because of his military experience and the belief that a Virginian would better unite the colonies. He was unanimously elected by Congress the next day.{{efn|Other reasons Washington was perceived as the best choice for the commander role, according to Chernow, included his "superior presence, infinitely better judgment, more political cunning, and unmatched gravitas... he had the perfect temperament for leadership."{{sfn|Chernow|2010|p=185}}}}{{sfnm|Taylor|2016|1pp=132–133|Ellis|2004|2pp=67–68|Chernow|2010|3pp=185–186|Cogliano|2024|4pp=94&ndash;95}} Washington gave an acceptance speech on June 16, declining a salary, though he was later reimbursed expenses.{{sfnm|1a1=Rasmussen|1a2=Tilton|1y=1999|1p=294|2a1=Rhodehamel|2y=2017|2loc=5: "Because We Are Americans"|Taylor|2016|3pp=141–142|Ferling|2009|4pp=86–87}}

Congress chose Washington's primary staff officers, including [[Artemas Ward]], [[Horatio Gates]], [[Charles Lee (general)|Charles Lee]], [[Philip Schuyler]], and [[Nathanael Greene]].{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1pp=190–191|Ferling|2002|2p=108}} [[Henry Knox]] impressed Adams and Washington with his knowledge of [[Materiel#Military|ordnance]] and was promoted to colonel and chief of artillery. Similarly, Washington was impressed by [[Alexander Hamilton]]'s intelligence and bravery; he would later promote Hamilton to colonel and appoint him his [[aide-de-camp]].{{sfnm|Ferling|2002|1pp=109–110|Puls|2008|2p=31}}

Washington initially banned the enlistment of Black soldiers, both free and enslaved. The British saw an opportunity to divide the colonies: the colonial governor of Virginia issued [[Dunmore's Proclamation|a proclamation]] promising freedom to slaves if they joined the British forces.{{sfn|Morgan|2000|pp=290–291}} In response to this proclamation and the need for troops, Washington soon overturned his ban.{{sfnm|Painter|2006|1p=65|Hirschfeld|1997|p=2}} By the end of the war, around one-tenth of the soldiers in the Continental Army were Black, with some obtaining freedom.{{sfn|Taylor|2016|p=231}}

===Siege of Boston===
{{Main|Siege of Boston}}
In April 1775, in response to the growing rebellious movement, British troops occupied [[Boston]], led by General [[Thomas Gage]], commander of British forces in America.{{sfn|Taylor|2016|pp=121–123}} Local militias surrounded the city and trapped the British troops, resulting in a standoff.{{sfn|Taylor|2016|pp=121–122, 143}} As Washington headed for Boston, he was greeted by cheering crowds and political ceremony; he became a symbol of the [[Patriot (American Revolution)|Patriot]] cause.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|p=193}} Upon Washington's arrival on July 2, he went to inspect the army, but found undisciplined militia.{{sfn|Taylor|2016|p=143}} After consultation, he initiated [[Benjamin Franklin]]'s suggested reforms, instituting military drills and imposing strict disciplinary measures.{{sfnm|Isaacson|2003|1p=303|Ferling|2002|2p=112|Taylor|2016|3p=143|Fitzpatrick|1936|4p=514}} Washington promoted some of the soldiers who had performed well at [[Battle of Bunker Hill|Bunker Hill]] to officer rank, and removed officers who he saw as incompetent.{{sfn|Ferling|2002|pp=112–113, 116}} In October, King [[George III]] declared that the colonies were in open rebellion and relieved Gage of command, replacing him with General [[William Howe, 5th Viscount Howe|William Howe]].{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1p=208|Taylor|2016|2pp=133–135}}

When the [[Charles River]] froze over, Washington was eager to cross and storm Boston, but Gates and others were opposed to having untrained militia attempt to assault well-garrisoned fortifications. Instead, Washington agreed to [[Fortification of Dorchester Heights|secure the Dorchester Heights]] above Boston to try to force the British out.{{sfn|Ferling|2009|p=100}} On March 17, 8,906 British troops, 1,100 [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|Loyalists]], and 1,220 women and children began a chaotic naval evacuation. Washington entered the city with 500 men, giving them explicit orders not to plunder.{{sfn|McCullough|2005|pp=105&ndash;107}} He refrained from exerting military authority in Boston, leaving civilian matters in the hands of local authorities.{{efn|On January 24, 1776, Congressional delegate [[Edward Rutledge]], echoing General George Washington's own concerns, suggested that a war office similar to Great Britain's be established.{{sfn|Wright|1983|p=89}} Organization of the [[Board of War]] underwent several significant changes after its inception in 1776.{{sfn|Wright|1983|p=121f}}}}{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1pp=227–228|Lengel|2005|2pp=124–126|Ferling|2002|3pp=116–119|Taylor|2016|4pp=144, 153–154}}

===New York and New Jersey===
{{Main|New York and New Jersey Campaign}}

====Battle of Long Island====
{{Main|Battle of Long Island}}
[[File:Battle_of_Long_Island.png|thumb|alt=Map diagramming the British landing in New York and Washington's retreat|Map of the [[Battle of Long Island]]]]

After the victory at Boston, Washington correctly guessed that the British would return to [[New York City]] and retaliate. He arrived there on April 13, 1776, and ordered the construction of fortifications. He also ordered his forces to treat civilians and their property with respect, to avoid the abuses Bostonians suffered at the hands of British troops.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|pp=229–230}} The British forces, including more than a hundred ships and thousands of troops, began arriving on [[Staten Island]] in July to lay siege to the city.{{sfnm|Fischer|2004|1pp=32–33|Taylor|2016|2pp=162–163}}

Howe's troop strength totaled 32,000 regulars and [[Hessian (soldier)|Hessian auxiliaries]]; Washington had 23,000 men, mostly untrained recruits and militia.{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1pp=244–245|Taylor|2016|2pp=162–163}} In August, Howe landed 20,000 troops at [[Gravesend, Brooklyn]], and approached Washington's fortifications. Overruling his generals, Washington chose to fight, based on inaccurate information that Howe's army had only around 8,000 soldiers.{{sfnm|Ellis|2004|1pp=95–96|Chernow|2010|2p=244}} In the [[Battle of Long Island]], Howe assaulted Washington's flank and inflicted 1,500 Patriot casualties.{{sfn|Taylor|2016|p=164}} Washington retreated to [[Manhattan]].{{sfn|McCullough|2005|pp=186–195}}

Howe sent a message to Washington to negotiate peace, addressing him as "George Washington, Esq." Washington declined to accept the message, demanding to be addressed with diplomatic protocol&mdash;not as a rebel.{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1p=240|Pearson|2009|2pp=157–158|Taylor|2016|3p=164}} Despite misgivings, Washington heeded the advice of General Greene to defend [[Fort Washington (Manhattan)|Fort Washington]], but was ultimately forced to abandon it.{{sfnm|McCullough|2005|1pp=236&ndash;237|Chernow|2010|2pp=257&ndash;262|Rhodehamel|2017|3loc=6: Winter Soldier}} Howe pursued and Washington retreated across the [[Hudson River]] to [[Fort Lee Historic Park|Fort Lee]]. In November, Howe [[Battle of Fort Washington|captured Fort Washington]]. Loyalists in New York City considered Howe a liberator and spread a rumor that Washington had set fire to the city.{{sfnm|Alden|1996|1p=137|Taylor|2016|2p=165}} Now reduced to 5,400 troops, Washington's army retreated through [[Province of New Jersey|New Jersey]].{{sfnm|Fischer|2004|1pp=224–226|Taylor|2016|2pp=166–169}}

====Crossing the Delaware, Trenton, and Princeton====
{{Main|George Washington's crossing of the Delaware River|Battle of Trenton|Battle of Princeton}}

[[File:Washington_Crossing_the_Delaware_by_Emanuel_Leutze,_MMA-NYC,_1851.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|alt=painting of Washington standing on a boat being rowed across icy water|[[Washington Crossing the Delaware (1851 paintings)|''Washington Crossing the Delaware'' by Emanuel Leutze]] (1851)]]

Washington crossed the [[Delaware River]] into [[Pennsylvania]], where General [[John Sullivan (general)|John Sullivan]] joined him with 2,000 more troops.{{sfn|Taylor|2016|pp=166–167, 169}} The future of the Continental Army was in doubt due to a lack of supplies, a harsh winter, expiring enlistments, and [[desertion]]s.{{sfnm|Ketchum|1999|1p=235|Chernow|2010|2p=264}} Howe posted a Hessian garrison at [[Trenton, New Jersey|Trenton]] to hold western New Jersey and the east shore of the Delaware.{{sfn|Taylor|2016|p=169}} At sunrise on December 26, 1776, Washington, aided by Colonel Knox and artillery, led his men in [[Battle of Trenton|a successful surprise attack on the Hessians]].{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1pp=270, 275–276|Ferling|2002|2pp=146–147|Fischer|2004|3pp=170, 232–234, 254, 405}}

Washington returned to New Jersey on January 3, 1777, launching [[Battle of Princeton|an attack]] on the British regulars at [[Princeton, New Jersey|Princeton]], with 40 Americans killed or wounded and 273 British killed or captured.{{sfnm|Fischer|2004|1p=254|Ketchum|1999|2pp=306–307|Alden|1996|3p=146}} Howe retreated to New York City for the winter.{{sfn|Taylor|2016|p=172}} Washington took up winter headquarters in [[Morristown, New Jersey]].{{sfn|Patterson|2004|p=101}} Strategically, Washington's victories at Trenton and Princeton were pivotal: they revived Patriot morale and quashed the British strategy of showing overwhelming force followed by offering generous terms, changing the course of the war.{{sfnm|1a1=Taylor|1y=2016|1p=172|2a1=Fischer|2y=2004|2p=367|3a1=Willcox|3a2=Arnstein|3y=1988|3p=164}}

===Philadelphia===
{{Main|Philadelphia campaign}}

====Brandywine, Germantown, and Saratoga====
{{Main|Battle of Brandywine|Battle of Germantown|Battles of Saratoga}}

In July 1777, the British general [[John Burgoyne]] led his British troops south from [[Quebec]] in the [[Saratoga campaign]]; he [[Siege of Fort Ticonderoga (1777)|recaptured Fort Ticonderoga]], intending to divide [[New England]]. However, General Howe took his army from New York City south to Philadelphia rather than joining Burgoyne near [[Albany, New York|Albany]].{{sfn|Chernow|2010|pp=300–301}} Washington and [[Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette|Gilbert, Marquis de Lafayette]] rushed to Philadelphia to engage Howe. In the [[Battle of Brandywine]] on September 11, 1777, Howe outmaneuvered Washington and marched unopposed into the American capital at Philadelphia. A Patriot [[Battle of Germantown|attack]] against the British at [[Germantown, Philadelphia|Germantown]] in October failed.{{sfnm|Randall|1997|1pp=340–341|Chernow|2010|2pp=301–304}}

In [[Upstate New York]], the Patriots were led by General Horatio Gates. Concerned about Burgoyne's movements southward, Washington sent reinforcements north with Generals [[Benedict Arnold]] and [[Benjamin Lincoln]]. On October 7, 1777, Burgoyne tried to take [[Battles of Saratoga|Bemis Heights]] but was isolated from support and forced to surrender. Gates' victory emboldened Washington's critics, who favored Gates as a military leader.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|pp=312–313}} According to the biographer John Alden, "It was inevitable that the defeats of Washington's forces and the concurrent victory of the forces in upper New York should be compared."{{sfn|Alden|1996|p=163}} Admiration for Washington was waning.{{sfn|Lender|Stone|2016|pp=36&ndash;37}}

====Valley Forge and Monmouth====
{{Main|Valley Forge|Battle of Monmouth}}
[[File:Washington and Lafayette at Valley Forge.jpg|thumb|alt=Painting showing Washington and the Marquis de Lafayette on horseback in a winter setting, at Valley Forge|''Washington and Lafayette at Valley Forge'', a 1907 painting by [[John Ward Dunsmore]]]]

Washington and his army of 11,000 men went into winter quarters at [[Valley Forge]] north of Philadelphia in December 1777. There they lost between 2,000 and 3,000 men as a result of disease and lack of food, clothing, and shelter, reducing the army to below 9,000 men.{{sfnm|Ferling|2002|1p=186|Alden|1996|2pp=165, 167}} By February, Washington was facing low troop morale and increased desertions.{{sfn|Alden|1996|p=165}} An [[Conway Cabal|internal revolt]] by his officers prompted some members of Congress to consider removing Washington from command. Washington's supporters resisted, and the matter was ultimately dropped.{{sfn|Heydt|2005}}

Washington made repeated petitions to Congress for provisions and expressed the urgency of the situation to a congressional delegation.{{sfn|Stewart|2021|pp=242&ndash;244}} Congress agreed to strengthen the army's supply lines and reorganize the [[quartermaster]] and [[Commissary#Military|commissary]] departments, while Washington launched the [[Grand Forage of 1778]]{{efn|See, for example, Todd W. Braisted, ''Grand Forage 1778'', Westholme Publishing, 2016.}} to collect food from the surrounding region.{{sfnm|Carp|2017|1pp=44&ndash;47|Herrera|2022|2p=2|Bodle|2004|3pp=36–40, 215–216}} Meanwhile, Baron [[Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben]]'s incessant drilling transformed Washington's recruits into a disciplined fighting force.{{sfnm|Randall|1997|1pp=342, 356, 359|Ferling|2009|2p=172|Alden|1996|3p=168}} Washington appointed him [[Office of the Inspector General of the United States Army|Inspector General]].{{sfn|Lengel|2005|p=281}}

In early 1778, the French entered into a [[Treaty of Alliance (1778)|Treaty of Alliance]] with the Americans.{{sfn|Taylor|2016|p=188}} In May, Howe resigned and was replaced by [[Henry Clinton (British Army officer, born 1730)|Sir Henry Clinton]].{{sfn|Ferling|2007|p=296}} The British evacuated Philadelphia for New York that June and Washington summoned a war council of American and French generals. He chose to order a limited strike on the retreating British. Generals Lee and Lafayette moved with 4,000 men, without Washington's knowledge, and bungled their first strike on June 28. Washington relieved Lee and achieved a draw after [[Battle of Monmouth|an expansive battle]]. The British continued their retreat to New York.{{sfnm|Alden|1996|1pp=176–177|Ferling|2002|2pp=195–198}}
This battle "marked the end of the war's campaigning in the northern and middle states. Washington would not fight the British in a major engagement again for more than three years".{{sfn|Rhodehamel|2017|loc=7: Brandywine, Germantown, and Monmouth}} British attention shifted to the Southern theatre; in late 1778, General Clinton captured [[Savannah, Georgia]], a key port in the American South.{{sfn|Taylor|2016|p=230}} Washington, meanwhile, ordered [[Sullivan Expedition|an expedition]] against the [[Iroquois]], the Indigenous allies of the British, destroying their villages.{{sfn|Rhodehamel|2017|loc=8: The Great Man}}

===Espionage and West Point===
{{Main|Culper Ring|Military career of Benedict Arnold, 1777–1779}}

Washington became America's first [[spymaster]] by designing an espionage system against the British.{{sfn|Nagy|2016|p=274}} In 1778, Major [[Benjamin Tallmadge]] formed the [[Culper Ring]] at Washington's direction to covertly collect information about the British in New York.{{sfn|Rose|2006|pp=75, 224, 258–261}} Intelligence from the Culper Ring saved French forces from a surprise British attack, which was itself based on intelligence from Washington's general turned British spy Benedict Arnold.{{sfn|Rose|2006|loc=[https://archive.org/details/washingtonsspies00alex/page/n207/mode/2up n207]}}

Washington had disregarded incidents of disloyalty by Arnold, who had distinguished himself in many campaigns, including [[Benedict Arnold's expedition to Quebec|the invasion of Quebec]].{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1pp=378–387|Philbrick|2016|2p=35}} In 1779, Arnold began supplying the British spymaster [[John André]] with sensitive information intended to allow the British to capture [[West Point, New York|West Point]], a key American defensive position on the Hudson River.{{sfn|Philbrick|2016|pp=250–251, 269}} On September 21, Arnold gave André plans to take over the garrison.{{sfnm|Palmer|2006|pp=306, 315, 319, 320}} André was captured by militia who discovered the plans, after which Arnold escaped to New York.{{sfnm|Rhodehamel|2017|1loc=8: The Great Man|Palmer|2006|2p=410}} On being told about Arnold's treason, Washington recalled the commanders positioned under Arnold at key points around the fort to prevent any complicity. He assumed personal command at West Point and reorganized its defenses.{{sfnm|Palmer|2006|1pp=370–371|Middlekauff|2015|2p=232}}

===Southern theater and Yorktown===
{{Main|Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War|Siege of Yorktown}}
[[File:Plan_of_the_Battle_of_Yorktown_1875.png|thumb|alt=Map diagramming the American and French forces advancing on Yorktown|Map of the [[Siege of Yorktown]]]]

By June 1780, the British had occupied the South Carolina [[Piedmont (United States)|Piedmont]] and had firm control of the South. Washington was reinvigorated, however, when Lafayette returned from France with more ships, men, and supplies,{{sfnm|Taylor|2016|1p=234|Alden|1996|2pp=187–188}} and 5,000 veteran French troops led by Marshal [[Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau|Rochambeau]] arrived at [[Newport, Rhode Island]] in July.{{sfn|Lancaster|Plumb|1985|p=311}}

General Clinton sent Arnold, now a British brigadier general, to Virginia in December with 1,700 troops to capture [[Portsmouth, Virginia|Portsmouth]] and conduct raids on Patriot forces. Washington sent Lafayette south to counter Arnold's efforts.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|p=403}} Washington initially hoped to bring the fight to New York, drawing the British forces away from Virginia and ending the war there, but Rochambeau advised him that [[Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis|Cornwallis]] in Virginia was the better target.{{sfnm|Alden|1996|1pp=198–199|Chernow|2010|2pp=403–404}} On August 19, 1781, Washington and Rochambeau began a march to [[Yorktown, Virginia]], known now as the "[[Washington–Rochambeau Revolutionary Route|celebrated march]]".{{sfn|Lengel|2005|p=335}} Washington was in command of an army of 7,800 Frenchmen, 3,100 militia, and 8,000 Continental troops. Inexperienced in siege warfare, he often deferred to the judgment of Rochambeau. Despite this, Rochambeau never challenged Washington's authority as the battle's commanding officer.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|p=413}}

By late September, Patriot-French forces surrounded Yorktown, trapping the British Army, while the French navy emerged victorious at the [[Battle of the Chesapeake]]. The final American offensive began with a shot fired by Washington.{{sfn|Rhodehamel|2017|loc=8: The Great Man}} The siege ended with a British surrender on October 19, 1781; over 7,000 British soldiers became [[Prisoner of war|prisoners of war]].{{sfnm|Alden|1996|1pp=198, 201|Chernow|2010|2pp=372–373, 418|Lengel|2005|3p=337}} Washington negotiated the terms of surrender for two days, and the official signing ceremony took place on October 19.{{sfnm|1a1=Mann|1y=2008|1p=38|2a1=Lancaster|2a2=Plumb|2y=1985|2p=254|3a1=Chernow|3y=2010|3p=419}} Although the peace treaty was not negotiated for two more years, Yorktown proved to be the last significant battle of the Revolutionary War, with the British Parliament agreeing to cease hostilities in March 1782.{{sfn|Fleming|2007|pp=194, 312}}

===Demobilization and resignation===
{{Main|George Washington's resignation as commander-in-chief}}
[[File:General George Washington Resigning his Commission.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|alt=Painting by John Trumbull, depicting General Washington, standing in Maryland State House hall, surrounded by statesmen and others, resigning his commission|''[[General George Washington Resigning His Commission]]'', an 1824 portrait by [[John Trumbull]]]]

When peace negotiations began in April 1782, both the British and French began gradually evacuating their forces.{{sfn|Taylor|2016|pp=313–315}} In March 1783, Washington successfully calmed the [[Newburgh Conspiracy]], a planned mutiny by American officers dissatisfied with a lack of pay.<ref name=anb/>{{sfn|Browne|2016|pp=11&ndash;16}} Washington submitted an account of $450,000 in expenses which he had advanced to the army. The account was settled, though it was vague about large sums and included expenses his wife had incurred through visits to his headquarters.{{sfn|Alden|1996|p=209}}

When the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]] was signed on September 3, 1783, Britain officially recognized American independence. Washington disbanded his army, giving a farewell address to his soldiers on November 2.{{sfn|Lengel|2005|p=350}} He oversaw the [[Evacuation Day (New York)|evacuation of British forces in New York]] and was greeted by parades and celebrations.{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1pp=446, 448–449, 451|Puls|2008|2pp=184–186}}

In early December 1783, Washington bade farewell to his officers at [[Fraunces Tavern]] and [[George Washington's resignation as commander-in-chief|resigned as commander-in-chief]] soon after.{{sfn|Taylor|2016|p=319}} In a final appearance in uniform, he gave a statement to the Congress: "I consider it an indispensable duty to close this last solemn act of my official life, by commending the interests of our dearest country to the protection of Almighty God, and those who have the superintendence of them, to His holy keeping."{{sfnm|Alden|1996|1p=210|Chernow|2010|2pp=451–452, 455}} Washington's resignation was acclaimed at home and abroad, "extolled by later historians as a signal event that set the country's political course" according to the historian [[Edward J. Larson]].{{sfnm|Larson|2014|1p=10|Wood|1992|2p=206}}{{efn|Thomas Jefferson praised Washington for his "moderation and virtue" in relinquishing command. Reportedly, upon being informed of Washington's plans by painter [[Benjamin West]], King George III remarked: "If he does that, he will be the greatest man in the world."{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1p=454|Taylor|2016|2pp=319–320}}}} The same month, Washington was appointed president-general of the [[Society of the Cincinnati]], a newly established hereditary fraternity of Revolutionary War officers.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|p=444}}