Editing Geography of Russia (section)

==Physiography and hydrography==
{{See also|Great Russian Regions}}

Geographers traditionally divide the vast territory of Russia into five natural zones: the [[tundra]] zone; the [[Taiga]], or forest, zone; the [[steppe]], or plains, zone; the [[desert|arid zone]]; and the [[mountain]] zone. Most of Russia consists of two [[plain]]s (the [[East European Plain]] and the [[West Siberian Plain]]), three [[lowland]]s (the [[North Siberian Lowland|North Siberian]], the [[Central Yakutian Lowland|Central Yakutian]] and the [[East Siberian Lowland|East Siberian]]), two [[plateau]]s (the [[Central Siberian Plateau]] and the [[Lena Plateau]]), and two systems of mountainous areas (the [[East Siberian Mountains]] in far northeastern Siberia and the [[South Siberian Mountains]] along the southern border).

===Ecoregions===
{{See also|List of ecoregions in Russia}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="180px">
File:Pontic Caspian climate.png|The wider area of the [[Urals]], showing the transition of [[temperate forest]], [[taiga]], [[steppe]] and [[semi-desert]]
File:Russia vegetation.png|{{div col|colwidth=10vw|small=yes|style=text-align: left;text-indent: -1em; padding-left: 1em;}}{{legend|#c0c0c0|Ice sheet and polar desert}}{{legend|#9fd6c9|Tundra}}{{legend|#a7bddb|Alpine tundra}}{{legend|#006d64|Taiga}}{{legend|#3c9798|Montane forest}}{{legend|#a4e05d|Temperate broadleaf and mixed forest}}{{legend|#f7ec6f|Temperate steppe}}{{legend|#9b8447|Dry steppe}}{{div col end}}
</gallery>

{{multiple image|total_width = 800
 | align = center
 | background color = black
 | width = 1000
 | height = 10000
 | image1 = Western palearctic biomes.svg
 | alt1 = The western Palearctic biomes
 | image2 = Eastern palearctic biomes.svg
 | alt2 = The eastern Palearctic biomes
 | footer_background = 
 | footer_align = center
 | footer = Russia's 49 outlined terrestrial [[List of ecoregions in Russia|ecoregions]], each of a colored [[biome]], stretch across the [[Palearctic realm]] of [[Eurasia]]. Russia contains 8 of [[Biome#Olson_&_Dinerstein_(1998)_biomes_for_WWF_/_Global_200|14 terrestrial biomes]], or major habitat types, as defined by Olson & Dinerstein, et al. (2001).<ref name="Olson2001">Olson, D. M., Dinerstein, E., Wikramanayake, E. D., Burgess, N. D., Powell, G. V. N., Underwood, E. C., D'Amico, J. A., Itoua, I., Strand, H. E., Morrison, J. C., Loucks, C. J., Allnutt, T. F., Ricketts, T. H., Kura, Y., Lamoreux, J. F., Wettengel, W. W., Hedao, P., Kassem, K. R. (2001). Terrestrial ecoregions of the world: a new map of life on Earth. ''Bioscience'' 51(11):933–938, [http://wolfweb.unr.edu/~ldyer/classes/396/olsonetal.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120917072415/http://wolfweb.unr.edu/~ldyer/classes/396/olsonetal.pdf|date=2012-09-17}}.</ref>

{{div col|colwidth=12vw|small=yes|style=text-align: left;text-indent: -1em; padding-left: 1em;}}
{{Legend|#447821|01. [[Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests]]}}
{{Legend|#D4AA00|02. [[Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests]]}}
{{Legend|#66FF00|03. [[Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests]]}}
{{Legend|#71C837|04. [[Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests]]}}
{{Legend|#005500|05. [[Temperate coniferous forests]]}}
{{Legend|#2CA05A|06. [[Taiga|Taiga and Boreal forest]]}}
{{Legend|#FFDD55|07. [[Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands]]}}
{{Legend|#CDDE87|08. [[Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands]]}}
{{Legend|#80B3FF|09. [[Flooded grasslands and savannas]]}}
{{Legend|#C6AFE9|10. [[Montane grasslands and shrublands]]}}
{{Legend|#87DECD|11. [[Tundra]]}}
{{Legend|#C87137|12. [[Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub]]}}
{{Legend|#FFF6D5|13. [[Deserts and xeric shrublands]]}}
{{Legend|#D400AA|14. [[Mangrove forest|Mangroves]]}}
{{Legend|#ECECEC|Rock and Ice, or Abiotic Land Zones}}
{{div col end}}
}}

====East European plain====
The [[East European Plain]] encompasses most of [[European Russia]]. The [[West Siberian Plain]], which is the world's largest, extends east from the [[Ural Mountains|Urals]] to the [[Yenisei River]]. Because the terrain and vegetation are relatively uniform in each of the natural zones, Russia presents an illusion of uniformity. Nevertheless, Russian territory contains all the major vegetation zones of the world except a [[Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|tropical rain forest]]. 

====Icecaps====
{{Further|Arctic}}

[[Image:800px-Map-Tundra.png|thumb|upright=1.25|Map of arctic tundra.]]
[[Image:Laptev Sea map.png|thumb|upright=1.25|Map of the Russian Arctic.]]

The Russian Arctic stretches for close to {{convert|7000|km|mi}} west to east, from [[Karelia]] and the [[Kola Peninsula]] to [[Nenetsia]], the [[Gulf of Ob]], the [[Taymyr Peninsula]] and the [[Chukchi Peninsula]] ([[Kolyma]], [[Anadyr River]], [[Cape Dezhnev]]). Russian islands and archipelagos in the [[Arctic Sea]] include [[Novaya Zemlya]], [[Severnaya Zemlya]], and the [[New Siberian Islands]].

About 10 percent of Russia is [[tundra]]<ref>https://www.dni.gov/files/documents/climate2030_russia.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref>—a treeless, marshy plain. The tundra is Russia's northernmost zone, stretching from the Finnish border in the west to the [[Bering Strait]] in the east, then running south along the Pacific coast to the northern [[Kamchatka Peninsula]]. The zone is known for its herds of wild [[reindeer]], for so-called [[White night (astronomy)|white nights]] (dusk at midnight, dawn shortly thereafter) in summer, and for days of total darkness in winter. The long, harsh winters and lack of sunshine allow only [[moss]]es, [[lichen]]s, and [[Dwarf Willow|dwarf willows]] and shrubs to sprout low above the barren [[permafrost]]. Although several powerful Siberian rivers traverse this zone as they flow northward to the Arctic Ocean, partial and intermittent thawing hamper drainage of the numerous lakes, ponds, and swamps of the tundra. Frost weathering is the most important physical process here, gradually shaping a landscape that was severely modified by [[glaciation]] in the [[Quaternary glaciation|last ice age]]. Less than one percent of Russia's population lives in this zone. The fishing and port industries of the northwestern Kola Peninsula and the huge [[petroleum|oil]] and [[natural gas|gas]] fields of northwestern Siberia are the largest employers in the tundra. With a population of 180,000, the industrial frontier city of [[Norilsk]] is third in population to [[Murmansk]]  and [[Arkhangelsk]] among Russia's settlements above the Arctic Circle. From here you can also see the auroras ([[Aurora (astronomy)|northern lights]]).

====Taiga====
Taiga, the most extensive natural area of Russia, stretches from the western borders of Russia to the Pacific. It occupies the territory of the Eastern Europe and West Siberian plains to the north of  ° N and most of the territory east of [[Yenisei River]] taiga forests reach the southern borders of Russia in Siberia taiga only accounts for over 60% of Russia. In the north–south direction the eastern taiga is divided (east of the Yenisei River), with a continental climate, and west, with a milder climate, in general, the climate zone is moist, moderately warm (cool in the north) in the summer and harsh winter, there is a steady [[snow]] cover in the winter. In the latitudinal direction, the taiga is divided into three subzones - northern, middle and southern taiga. In the western taiga dense spruce and [[fir]] forests on wetlands alternate with [[pine]] forests, shrubs, and meadows on the lighter soils. Such vegetation is typical of the eastern taiga, but it plays an important role not fir and larch. Coniferous forest, however, does not form a continuous array and sparse areas of birch, [[alder]], [[willow]] (mainly in river valleys), the wetlands - marshes. Within the taiga are widespread fur-bearing animals - [[sable]], [[marten]], [[Stoat|ermine]], [[moose]], [[brown bear]], [[Wolverine]], [[wolf]], and [[muskrat]].<ref name="NRE">{{rp|84&ndash;109}}</ref>
[[File:Moose in lake.jpg|thumb|left|Moose]]

In the taiga is dominated by [[podzolic]] and cryogenic taiga soils, characterized by clearly defined horizontal structure (only in the southern taiga there is sod-podzolic soil). Formed in a leaching regime and in poor [[humus]]. Groundwater is normally found in the forest close to the surface, washing [[calcium]] from the upper layers, resulting in the top layer of soil of the taiga being discolored and oxidized. Few areas of the taiga, suitable for farming, are located mainly in the European part of Russia. Large areas are occupied by [[sphagnum]] marshes (here is dominated by podzolic-boggy soil). To enrich the soil for agricultural purposes [[Lime (material)|lime]] and other [[fertilizer]]s should be used.

Russian Taiga has the world's largest reserves of coniferous wood, but from year to year - as a result of intensive logging - they decrease. Development of hunting, farming (mainly in river valleys).

====Mixed and deciduous forests====
[[File:Birches near Novosibirsk in Autumn.jpg|thumb|right|A [[birch]] forest in [[Novosibirsk]]. Birch is a [[national tree]] of Russia.]]

The mixed and [[deciduous forest]] belt is triangular, widest along the western border and narrower towards the [[Ural Mountains]]. The main trees are [[Oak]] and [[Spruce]], but many other growths of vegetation such as [[Ash tree|ash]], [[aspen]], [[birch]], [[hornbeam]], [[maple]], and [[pine]] reside there. Separating the taiga from the wooded steppe is a narrow belt of birch and aspen woodland located east of the Urals as far as the [[Altay Mountains]]. Much of the forested zone has been cleared for [[agriculture]], especially in [[European Russia]]. Wildlife is more scarce as a result of this, but the [[roe deer]], [[wolf]], [[fox]], and [[squirrel]] are very common.

====Steppe====
{{Further|Eurasian Steppe|Pontic–Caspian steppe}}

The [[steppe]] has long been depicted as the typical Russian landscape. It is a broad band of treeless, grassy plains, interrupted by mountain ranges, extending from [[Hungary]] across [[Ukraine]], southern Russia, and [[Kazakhstan]] before ending in [[Manchuria]]. In a country of extremes, the steppe zone provides the most favorable conditions for human settlement and agriculture because of its moderate temperatures and normally adequate levels of sunshine and moisture. Even here, however, agricultural yields are sometimes adversely affected by unpredictable levels of [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]] and occasional catastrophic [[drought]]s. The soil is very dry.

===Topography===
[[File:Kamchatka Volcano Koryaksky (24231533812).jpg|thumb|[[Koryaksky]] volcano towering over [[Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky]]]]

Russia's mountain ranges are located principally along its continental dip (the Ural Mountains), along the southwestern border (the [[Caucasus Mountains|Caucasus]]), along the border with [[Mongolia]] (the eastern and western [[Sayan Mountains]] and the western extremity of the [[Altay Mountains]]), and in eastern Siberia (a complex system of ranges in the northeastern corner of the country and forming the spine of the [[Kamchatka Peninsula]], and lesser mountains extending along the [[Sea of Okhotsk]] and the [[Sea of Japan]]). Russia has nine major mountain ranges. In general, the eastern half of the country is much more mountainous than the western half, the interior of which is dominated by low plains. The traditional dividing line between the east and the west is the [[Yenisei River]] valley. In delineating the western edge of the [[Central Siberian Plateau]] from the West Siberian Plain, the Yenisey runs from near the Mongolian border northward into the Arctic Ocean west of the [[Taymyr Peninsula]].

====Ural Mountains====
{{Main|Ural Mountains}}

[[File:Саблинский хребет.jpg|thumb|[[Yugyd Va National Park]].]]

The [[Ural Mountains]] form the natural boundary between [[Europe]] and [[Asia]]; the range extends about {{convert|2100|km|mi}} from the [[Arctic Ocean]] to the northern border of [[Kazakhstan]]. Several low passes provide major transportation routes through the Urals eastward from Europe. The highest 
peak, [[Mount Narodnaya]], is {{convert|1894|m|ft}}. The Urals also contain valuable deposits of minerals.

====West Siberian Plain====
{{Main|West Siberian Plain}}

[[File:Vasyugan.jpg|thumb|[[Vasyugan River]]]]

To the east of the Urals is the [[West Siberian Plain]], stretching about {{Convert|1,900|km}} from west to east and about {{Convert|2400|km}} from north to south. With more than half its territory below {{Convert|200|m}} in elevation, the plain contains some of the world's largest [[swamp]]s and [[floodplain]]s. The plain is largely flat and featureless. The only slightly elevated areas are the [[Siberian Uvaly]] across the central part and the [[Ob Plateau]] in the south.<ref name="GSEb">[https://www.booksite.ru/fulltext/1/001/008/092/860.htm Приобское плато]; ''[[Great Soviet Encyclopedia]]'' in 30 vols.  — Ch. ed. [[A.M. Prokhorov]]. - 3rd ed. - M. Soviet Encyclopedia, 1969-1978. (in Russian)</ref> There are steppe areas in the southern part reaching into Kazakhstan, such as the [[Ishim Steppe]] with the [[Kamyshlov Log]] trench. Most of the plain's population lives in the drier section south of 77 degrees north [[latitude]].

====Central Siberian plateau====
{{Main|Central Siberian Plateau}}

The region directly east of the West Siberian Plain is the [[Central Siberian Plateau]], which extends eastward from the Yenisei River valley to the [[Lena River]] valley. The region is divided into several [[plateaus]], with elevations ranging between {{Convert|320 and 740|m}}; the highest elevation is about {{Convert|1,800|m}}, in the northern [[Putoran Mountains]]. The plain is bounded on the south by the [[Primorsky Range]] and the [[Baikal Mountains]], and on the north by the North Siberian Lowland, an extension of the West Siberian Plain extending into the Taymyr Peninsula on the Arctic Ocean.

====Sayan and Stanovoy Mountains====
[[File:Шавлинские озёра.jpg|right|thumb|[[Altay Mountains]]]]

In the mountain system west of [[Lake Baikal]] in south-central Siberia, the highest elevations are {{Convert|3300|m}} in the Western [[Sayan Mountains|Sayan]], {{Convert|3200|m}} in the Eastern Sayan, and {{Convert|4500|m}} at [[Belukha Mountain]] in the [[Altay Mountains]]. The Eastern Sayan reach nearly to the southern shore of [[Lake Baikal]]; at the lake, there is an elevation difference of more than {{Convert|4500|m}} between the nearest mountain, {{Convert|2840|m}} high, and the deepest part of the lake, which is {{Convert|1700|m}} below sea level. The mountain systems east of Lake Baikal are lower, forming a complex of minor ranges and valleys that reaches from the lake to the Pacific coast. The maximum height of the [[Stanovoy Range]], which runs west to east from northern Lake Baikal to the Sea of Okhotsk, is {{Convert|2550|m}}. To the south of that range is southeastern Siberia, whose mountains reach {{Convert|800|m}}. Across the [[Strait of Tartary]] from that region is [[Sakhalin|Sakhalin Island]], Russia's largest island, where the highest elevation is about {{Convert|1700|m}}. The small [[Moneron Island]], the site of the shootdown of [[Korean Air Lines Flight 007]], is found to its west.

====Caucasus Mountains====
[[File:Tsmity2.jpg|thumb|Caucasus Mountains]]

Truly alpine terrain appears in the southern mountain ranges. Between the Black and Caspian seas, the [[Caucasus Mountains]] rise to impressive heights, forming a boundary between Europe and Asia. One of the peaks, [[Mount Elbrus]], is the highest point in Europe, at {{Convert|5642|m}}. The geological structure of the Caucasus extends to the northwest as the [[Crimea]]n and [[Carpathian Mountains]] and southeastward into [[Central Asia]] as the [[Tian Shan]] and [[Pamir Mountains|Pamirs]]. The Caucasus Mountains create an imposing natural barrier between Russia and its neighbors to the southwest, [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] and [[Azerbaijan]].

====Northeast Siberia and Kamchatka====
Northeastern Siberia, north of the Stanovoy Range, is an extremely mountainous region. The long [[Kamchatka Peninsula]], which juts southward into the Sea of Okhotsk, includes many [[volcano|volcanic peaks]], some of which are still active. The highest is the {{Convert|4750|m|adj=on}} [[Klyuchevskaya Sopka]], the highest point in the [[Russian Far East]]. The volcanic chain continues from the southern tip of Kamchatka southward through the [[Kuril Islands]] chain and into [[Japan]]. Kamchatka also is one of Russia's two centers of seismic activity (the other is the Caucasus). In 1995, a major earthquake largely destroyed the oil-processing town of [[Neftegorsk, Sakhalin Oblast|Neftegorsk]]. Also located in this region is the very large [[Beyenchime-Salaatin crater]].

===Drainage===
[[File:Lake Baikal in winter.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.3|A frozen [[Lake Baikal]], near [[Olkhon Island]].]]

Russia, home to over 100,000 rivers,<ref name="natgeo"/> is divided into [[Watershed district (Russia)|twenty watershed districts]]. It has one of the world's largest surface water resources, with its lakes containing approximately one-quarter of the world's liquid [[fresh water]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/23.htm|title=Topography and Drainage|editor=Glenn E. Curtis |year=1998|location=[[Washington, D.C.]]|publisher=Federal Research Division of the [[Library of Congress]]|access-date=8 July 2021}}</ref> Russia is second only to [[Brazil]] by [[List of countries by total renewable water resources|total renewable water resources]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/total-renewable-water-resources/|title=Total renewable water resources|website=[[The World Factbook]]|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|access-date=9 July 2021}}</ref>

Forty of Russia's rivers longer than {{Convert|1000|km}} are east of the Ural Mountains, including the three major rivers that drain Siberia as they flow northward to the Arctic Ocean: the [[Irtysh]]-[[Ob River|Ob]] system (totaling {{Convert|5380|km|disp=or}}), the [[Yenisey]] ({{Convert|5075|km|disp=or}}), and the [[Lena River|Lena]] ({{Convert|4294|km|disp=or}}), they are among the [[world's longest rivers]].<ref name="rivers"/> The basins of those river systems cover about {{Convert|8|e6km2|abbr=off|spell=in}}, discharging nearly 50,000 cubic meters of water per second ({{Convert|50,000|m3/s|e6cuft/s|abbr=unit|disp=out}}) into the Arctic Ocean. The northward flow of these rivers means that source areas thaw before the areas downstream, creating vast swamps such as the {{Convert|48,000|km2|adj=on}} [[Vasyugan Swamp]] in the center of the West Siberian Plain. The same is true of other river systems, including the [[Pechora River|Pechora]] and the [[Northern Dvina]] in western Russia, and the [[Kolyma River|Kolyma]] and the [[Indigirka]] in Siberia. Approximately 10 percent of Russian territory is classified as swampland.

Russia's inland bodies of water are chiefly a legacy of extensive [[glaciation]]. [[Lake Ladoga|Ladoga]] and [[Lake Onega|Onega]] in northwestern Russia are two of the [[largest lakes in Europe]].<ref name="natgeo"/> However, [[Lake Baikal]] is the largest and most prominent among Russia's fresh water bodies, is the world's deepest, purest, oldest and most capacious fresh water lake, containing over one-fifth of the world's fresh surface water.<ref>{{cite web|title=Lake Baikal—A Touchstone for Global Change and Rift Studies|publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]]|url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/baikal/|access-date=26 December 2007}}</ref> Numerous smaller lakes dot northern Russia and Siberian plains. The largest of these are lakes [[Belozero]], [[Topozero]], [[Vygozero]], and [[Lake Ilmen|Ilmen]] in the country's northwest and [[Lake Chany]] in southwestern Siberia.

A number of other rivers drain Siberia from eastern mountain ranges into the [[Pacific Ocean]]. The [[Amur River]] and its main tributary, the [[Ussuri River|Ussuri]], form a long stretch of the winding boundary between Russia and China. The Amur system drains most of southeastern Siberia. Three basins drain European Russia. The [[Dnieper River|Dnieper]], which flows mainly through Belarus and Ukraine, has its headwaters in the hills west of Moscow. The {{Convert|1860|km|adj=on}} [[Don (river)|Don]], which is the fifth-longest river in Europe, originates in the [[Central Russian Upland]] south of Moscow and then flows into the [[Sea of Azov]] at [[Rostov-on-Don]]. The [[Volga]], widely seen as Russia's national river due to its historical and cultural importance, is the [[List of rivers of Europe#Rivers of Europe by length|longest river]] in Europe,<ref name="rivers">{{cite web|url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2019/05/15/russias-largest-rivers-from-the-amur-to-the-volga-a65593|title=Russia's Largest Rivers From the Amur to the Volga|work=[[The Moscow Times]]|date=15 May 2019|access-date=26 May 2021}}</ref> it rises in the [[Valdai Hills]] west of Moscow and meandering southeastward for {{Convert|3,510|km}} before emptying into the [[Caspian Sea]]. Altogether, the Volga system drains about {{Convert|1.4|e6km2|mi2}}. Linked by several canals, western Russia's rivers long have been a vital transportation system; the Volga remains the country's most commercial river, and carries about two-thirds of Russia's inland water traffic.