Editing Genocide (section)

== Genocide studies ==
{{main|Genocide studies}}
{{See also|Outline of genocide studies}}
{{genocide of Indigenous peoples}}
The field of genocide studies emerged in the 1970s and 1980s, as [[social science]] began to consider the phenomenon of genocide.{{sfn|Kiernan ''et al.''|2023|pp=13, 17}}{{sfn|Jones|2023|p=23}} Due to the occurrence of the [[Bosnian genocide]], [[Rwandan genocide]], and the [[Kosovo crisis]], genocide studies exploded in the 1990s.{{sfn|Kiernan ''et al.''|2023|pp=17–18}} In contrast to earlier researchers who took for granted the idea that liberal and democratic societies were less likely to commit genocide, revisionists associated with the [[International Network of Genocide Scholars]] emphasized how Western ideas led to genocide.{{sfn|Kiernan ''et al.''|2023|pp=23–24}} The [[genocides of indigenous peoples]] as part of [[European colonialism]] were initially not recognized as a form of genocide.{{sfn|Kiernan|Madley|Taylor|2023|p=6–10}} Pioneers of research into [[settler colonialism]] such as [[Patrick Wolfe]] spelled out the genocidal logic of settler projects, prompting a rethinking of colonialism.{{sfn|Kiernan|Madley|Taylor||2023|p=9}} Many genocide scholars are concerned both with objective study of the topic, and obtaining insights that will help prevent future genocides.{{sfn|Jones|2023|p=24}}

=== Definitions ===
{{main|Genocide definitions}}
[[File:Starving woman africa biafra nigeria conflict famine (cropped).jpg|thumb|The [[blockade of Biafra]], which resulted in the death of at least 1 million people, was argued not to be genocide because it was the Nigerian government's aim to [[Nigerian Civil War|suppress rebellion]].{{sfn|Moses|2021|pp=443–444}}]]

The definition of genocide generates controversy whenever a new case arises and debate erupts as to whether or not it qualifies as a genocide. Sociologist [[Martin Shaw (sociologist)|Martin Shaw]] writes, "Few ideas are as important in public debate, but in few cases are the meaning and scope of a key idea less clearly agreed."{{sfn|Shaw|2015|p=38}}{{sfn|Williams|2020|p=8}} Some scholars and activists use the Genocide Convention definition.{{sfn|Irvin-Erickson|2023|p=22}} Others prefer narrower definitions that indicate genocide is rare in human history, reducing genocide to [[mass killing]]{{sfn|Shaw|2014|p=4}} or distinguishing it from other types of violence by the innocence,{{sfn|Moses|2023|p=19}} helplessness, or defencelessness of its victims.{{sfn|Shaw|2015|loc=Sociologists redefine genocide}} Most genocides occur during wartime,{{sfn|Mulaj|2021|p=15}}{{sfn|Shaw|2014|pp=6–7}} and distinguishing genocide or [[war of extermination|genocidal war]] from non-genocidal warfare can be difficult.{{sfn|Shaw|2014|pp=6–7}} Likewise, genocide is distinguished from violent and coercive forms of rule that aim to change behavior rather than destroy groups.{{sfn|Shaw|2014|p=7}}{{sfn|Kiernan|Madley|Taylor|2023|pp=11–12}} Some definitions include political or social groups as potential victims of genocide.{{sfn|Kiernan ''et al.''|2023|p=3}} Many of the more sociologically oriented definitions of genocide overlap that of the [[crime against humanity]] of [[extermination (crime)|extermination]], which refers to large-scale killing or induced death as part of a systematic attack on a civilian population.{{sfn|Kiernan ''et al.''|2023|pp=3–4}} Isolated or short-lived phenomena that resemble genocide can be termed [[genocidal massacre|genocidal violence]].{{sfn|Shaw|2014|p=5}}

[[Cultural genocide]] or ethnocide—actions targeted at the reproduction of a group's language, culture, or way of life{{sfn|Bachman|2022|pp=56–57}}—was part of [[Raphael Lemkin]]'s original concept, and its proponents in the 1940s argued that it, along with physical genocide, were two mechanisms aiming at the same goal: destruction of the targeted group. Because cultural genocide clearly applied to some colonial and assimilationist policies, several states with overseas colonies threatened to refuse to ratify the convention unless it was excluded.{{sfn|Bachman|2022|p=62}}{{sfn|Curthoys|Docker|2008|pp=13–14}} Most genocide scholars believe that both cultural genocide and [[structural violence]] should be included in the definition of genocide, if committed with intent to destroy the targeted group.{{sfn|Bachman|2021a|p=375}} Although included in Lemkin's original concept and by some scholars, political groups were also excluded from the Genocide Convention. The result of this exclusion was that perpetrators of genocide could redefine their targets as being a political or military enemy, thus excluding them from consideration.{{sfn|Bachman|2022|pp=45–46, 48–49, 53}}

The overlap of law and history leads to contrasting perspectives on genocide.{{sfn|Curthoys|Docker|2008|p=9}} The law focuses on serious acts, limiting genocide to physical and biological aspects, necessitating intent to destroy a group, and protecting only defined classes of groups. Historians, however, explore the broader complexities of genocides, including long-term processes and various motives, without strict legal definitions. Some historians also recognize cultural adaptability after genocidal events.{{sfn|Bilsky|Klagsbrun|2018|pp=373–396}}

=== Criticism of the concept of genocide and alternatives ===
[[File:Royal Air Force Bomber Command, 1942-1945. CL3400 (cropped).jpg|thumb|The death of large numbers of civilians as [[collateral damage]] of military activity such as [[Aerial bombardment and international law|aerial bombings]] is excluded from the definition of genocide, even when they make up a significant portion of a nation's population.{{sfn|Moses|2023|pp=22–23}}<!-- https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:World_War_II_destructions_in_the_Soviet_Union -->]]
Most civilian killings in the twentieth century were not from genocide, which only applies to select cases.{{sfn|Moses|2023|p=25}}{{sfn|Graziosi|Sysyn|2022|p=15}} Alternative terms have been coined to describe processes left outside narrower definitions of genocide. [[Ethnic cleansing]]—the forced expulsion of a population from a given territory—has achieved widespread currency, although many scholars recognize that it frequently overlaps with genocide, even where Lemkin's definition is not used.{{sfn|Shaw|2015|loc=Chapter 5}} Other terms ending in -cide have proliferated for the destruction of particular types of groupings: [[democide]] (people by a government), [[eliticide]] (the elite of a targeted group), ethnocide (ethnic groups), [[gendercide]] (gendered groupings), [[politicide]] (political groups), [[classicide]] (social classes), and [[urbicide]] (the destruction of a particular locality).{{sfn|Shaw|2015|loc=Chapter 6}}{{sfn|Lemos|Taylor|Kiernan|2023|p=33}}{{sfn|Jones|2023|pp=42–43}}

The word ''genocide'' inherently carries a value judgement{{sfn|Lemos|Taylor|Kiernan|2023|pp=31–32}} as it is widely considered to be the epitome of human [[evil]].{{sfn|Lang|2005|pp=5–17}} In the past, violence that could be labeled genocide [[genocide justification|was sometimes celebrated]]{{sfn|Lemos|Taylor|Kiernan|2023|p=32}}—although it always had its critics.{{sfn|Lemos|Taylor|Kiernan|2023|pp=45–46}} The idea that genocide sits on top of a hierarchy of [[atrocity crimes]]—that it is worse than [[crimes against humanity]] or [[war crimes]]—is controversial among scholars{{sfn|Mulaj|2021|p=11}} and it suggests that the protection of groups is more important than of individuals.{{sfn|Sands|2017|p=364}} Historian [[A. Dirk Moses]] argues that the prioritization of genocide causes other atrocities to not be considered in study and response.{{sfn|Moses|2021|p=1}}{{sfn|Bachman|2022|p=118}}