Editing Genetically modified organism (section)

== Fungi ==
Fungi can be used for many of the same processes as bacteria. For industrial applications, yeasts combine the bacterial advantages of being a single-celled organism that is easy to manipulate and grow with the advanced protein modifications found in [[eukaryote]]s. They can be used to produce large complex molecules for use in food, pharmaceuticals, hormones, and steroids.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Branduardi P, Smeraldi C, Porro D|date=2008|title=Metabolically engineered yeasts: 'potential' industrial applications|journal=Journal of Molecular Microbiology and Biotechnology|language=en|volume=15|issue=1|pages=31–40|doi=10.1159/000111990|pmid=18349548|doi-access=free}}</ref> Yeast is important for wine production and as of 2016 two genetically modified yeasts involved in the fermentation of wine have been commercialized in the United States and Canada. One has increased [[malolactic fermentation]] efficiency, while the other prevents the production of dangerous [[ethyl carbamate]] compounds during fermentation.<ref name=":2" /> There have also been advances in the production of [[biofuel]] from genetically modified fungi.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/science/GM-fungi-New-way-to-produce-cheap-biofuel/articleshow/20420550.cms|title=GM fungi: New way to produce cheap biofuel |website=[[The Times of India]]|date=4 June 2013 |access-date=17 December 2018}}</ref>

Fungi, being the most common [[pathogen]]s of insects, make attractive [[biopesticide]]s. Unlike bacteria and viruses they have the advantage of infecting the insects by contact alone, although they are out competed in efficiency by [[chemical pesticides]]. Genetic engineering can improve virulence, usually by adding more virulent proteins,<ref name="pmid21350178">{{cite journal|vauthors=Fang W, Vega-Rodríguez J, Ghosh AK, Jacobs-Lorena M, Kang A, St Leger RJ|date=February 2011|title=Development of transgenic fungi that kill human malaria parasites in mosquitoes|journal=Science|volume=331|issue=6020|pages=1074–7|doi=10.1126/science.1199115|pmc=4153607|pmid=21350178|bibcode=2011Sci...331.1074F }}
*{{cite magazine |author=Francie Diep |date=28 February 2011 |title=Genetically altered fungus designed to attack malaria in mosquitoes |magazine=Scientific American |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/gallery/genetically-altered-fungus-designed-to-attack-malaria-in-mosquitoes/}}</ref> increasing infection rate or enhancing [[spore]] persistence.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hokanson KE, Dawson WO, Handler AM, Schetelig MF, St Leger RJ | title = Not all GMOs are crop plants: non-plant GMO applications in agriculture | journal = Transgenic Research | volume = 23 | issue = 6 | pages = 1057–68 | date = December 2014 | pmid = 24242193 | doi = 10.1007/s11248-013-9769-5 | s2cid = 255108053 | url = http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2423&context=usdaarsfacpub }}</ref> Many of the [[Vector (epidemiology)|disease carrying vectors]] are susceptible to [[Entomopathogenic fungus|entomopathogenic fungi]]. An attractive target for [[Biological pest control|biological control]] are [[mosquito]]s, vectors for a range of deadly diseases, including [[malaria]], [[yellow fever]] and [[dengue fever]]. Mosquitos can evolve quickly so it becomes a balancing act of killing them before the ''[[Plasmodium]]'' they carry becomes the infectious disease, but not so fast that they become [[Disease resistance|resistant]] to the fungi. By genetically engineering fungi like ''[[Metarhizium anisopliae]]'' and ''[[Beauveria bassiana]]'' to delay the development of mosquito infectiousness the [[selection pressure]] to evolve resistance is reduced.<ref name=":8">{{cite book|vauthors=Zhao H, Lovett B, Fang W|title=Genetics and Molecular Biology of Entomopathogenic Fungi |date=1 January 2016|chapter=Genetically Engineering Entomopathogenic Fungi|series=Advances in Genetics|volume=94|pages=137–63|doi=10.1016/bs.adgen.2015.11.001|pmid=27131325|isbn=9780128046944 }}</ref> Another strategy is to add proteins to the fungi that block transmission of malaria<ref name=":8" /> or remove the ''Plasmodium'' altogether.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Koenraadt CJ, Takken W|date=April 2011|title=Viability of GM fungi crucial to malaria control|journal=Science|volume=332|issue=6026|pages=175|doi=10.1126/science.332.6026.175|pmid=21474739|bibcode=2011Sci...332..175K }}</ref>

''[[Agaricus bisporus]]'' the common white button mushroom, has been [[Genome editing|gene edited]] to resist browning, giving it a longer [[shelf life]]. The process used [[CRISPR]] to [[Gene knockout|knock out]] a gene that encodes [[polyphenol oxidase]]. As it didn't introduce any foreign DNA into the organism it was not deemed to be regulated under existing GMO frameworks and as such is the first CRISPR-edited organism to be approved for release.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Waltz E |title=Gene-edited CRISPR mushroom escapes US regulation |journal=Nature |date=14 April 2016 |volume=532 |issue=7599 |pages=293 |doi=10.1038/nature.2016.19754 |pmid=27111611 |bibcode=2016Natur.532..293W |doi-access=free }}</ref> This has intensified debates as to whether gene-edited organisms should be considered genetically modified organisms<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2016/04/15/474358416/will-genetically-edited-food-be-regulated-the-case-of-the-mushroom|title=Will Genetically 'Edited' Food Be Regulated? The Case of the Mushroom | vauthors = Charles D |date=15 April 2016|work=All Things Considered|publisher=National Public Radio|access-date=17 December 2018 }}</ref> and how they should be regulated.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/07/27/science/gmo-europe-crops.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220102/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/07/27/science/gmo-europe-crops.html |archive-date=2 January 2022 |url-access=limited |url-status=live|title=What Is a Genetically Modified Crop? A European Ruling Sows Confusion| vauthors = Zimmer C |date=27 July 2018 |work=The New York Times |access-date=17 December 2018 }}{{cbignore}}</ref>