Editing Gender (section)

== Biological factors and views ==
{{See also|Sexual differentiation|Sexual differentiation in humans}}
Some gendered behavior is influenced by prenatal and early life androgen exposure. This includes, for example, gender normative play, self-identification with a gender, and tendency to engage in aggressive behavior.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hines|first1=Melissa|last2=Constantinescu|first2=Mihaela|last3=Spencer|first3=Debra|title=Early androgen exposure and human gender development|journal=Biology of Sex Differences|date=26 February 2015|volume=6|pages=3|doi=10.1186/s13293-015-0022-1|pmc=4350266|issn=2042-6410|pmid=25745554 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Males of most mammals, including humans, exhibit more rough and tumble play behavior, which is influenced by maternal testosterone levels. These levels may also influence sexuality, with non-heterosexual persons exhibiting sex atypical behavior in childhood.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hines|first1=Melissa|title=Prenatal endocrine influences on sexual orientation and on sexually differentiated childhood behavior|journal=Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology|date= 6 February 2017|volume=32|issue=2|pages= 170–182|doi=10.1016/j.yfrne.2011.02.006|pmc= 3296090|issn=0091-3022|pmid= 21333673}}</ref>

Some research pertaining to the biological [[causes of gender incongruence]] has been done. Transgender and cisgender gender identity is influenced by genetic factors<ref name="polderman">{{cite journal |last1=Polderman |first1=Tinca J. C. |last2=Kreukels |first2=Baudewijntje P. C. |last3=Irwig |first3=Michael S. |last4=Beach |first4=Lauren |last5=Chan |first5=Yee-Ming |last6=Derks |first6=Eske M. |last7=Esteva |first7=Isabel |last8=Ehrenfeld |first8=Jesse |last9=Heijer |first9=Martin Den |last10=Posthuma |first10=Danielle |last11=Raynor |first11=Lewis |last12=Tishelman |first12=Amy |last13=Davis |first13=Lea K. |title=The Biological Contributions to Gender Identity and Gender Diversity: Bringing Data to the Table |journal=Behavior Genetics |date=March 2018 |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=95–108 |doi=10.1007/s10519-018-9889-z |pmid=29460079 |hdl=1871.1/acbbef10-1339-495d-8cc6-0d3f02742596 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29460079/ |access-date=15 December 2024 |issn=1573-3297}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ristori |first1=Jiska |last2=Cocchetti |first2=Carlotta |last3=Romani |first3=Alessia |last4=Mazzoli |first4=Francesca |last5=Vignozzi |first5=Linda |last6=Maggi |first6=Mario |last7=Fisher |first7=Alessandra Daphne |title=Brain Sex Differences Related to Gender Identity Development: Genes or Hormones? |journal=International Journal of Molecular Sciences |date=January 2020 |volume=21 |issue=6 |pages=2123 |doi=10.3390/ijms21062123 |doi-access=free |pmid=32204531 |pmc=7139786 |language=en |issn=1422-0067}}</ref> and it has been hypothesised that it may be influenced by the prenatal hormonal environment or [[Neuroscience of sex differences|sexual dimorphism in the brain]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ettner |first1=Randi |title=Gender Confirmation Surgery |date=2020 |publisher=Springer International Publishing |isbn=978-3-030-29092-4 |pages=21–28 |url=https://rdcu.be/d2RKc |access-date=9 December 2024 |language=en |chapter=Etiology of Gender Dysphoria}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fisher |first1=Alessandra D. |last2=Ristori |first2=Jiska |last3=Morelli |first3=Girolamo |last4=Maggi |first4=Mario |title=The molecular mechanisms of sexual orientation and gender identity |journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology |date=15 May 2018 |volume=467 |pages=3–13 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2017.08.008|pmid=28847741 }}</ref>

There are studies concerning women who have a condition called [[congenital adrenal hyperplasia]], which leads to the overproduction of the masculine sex [[hormone]], [[androgen]]. These women usually have ordinary female appearances (though nearly all girls with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) have corrective surgery performed on their genitals). However, despite taking hormone-balancing medication given to them at birth, these females are statistically more likely to be interested in activities traditionally linked to males than female activities. Psychology professor and CAH researcher Dr. Sheri Berenbaum attributes these differences to an exposure of higher levels of male sex hormones in utero.<ref>{{Cite web | last = Beattie-Moss | first = Melissa | title = Are gender differences predetermined? | publisher = [[Penn State University]] | date = 8 June 2005 | url = https://www.rps.psu.edu/probing/gender.html | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060113080145/https://www.rps.psu.edu/probing/gender.html | url-status=dead | archive-date = 13 January 2006 | access-date = 30 August 2010 }}</ref>

=== Non-human animals ===
In non-human animal research, ''gender'' is commonly used to refer to the biological sex of the animals.<ref name="haig" /> According to biologist [[Michael J Ryan (biologist)|Michael J. Ryan]], gender identity is a concept exclusively applied to humans.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ryan|first=Michael J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uc6MDwAAQBAJ&q=difference+in+gamete+size|title=A Taste for the Beautiful: The Evolution of Attraction|year=2019|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-19139-3|pages=9|language=en|access-date=28 July 2021|archive-date=17 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220217115727/https://books.google.com/books?id=uc6MDwAAQBAJ&q=difference+in+gamete+size|url-status=live}}</ref> Also, in a letter [[Ellen Ketterson]] writes, "[w]hen asked, my colleagues in the Department of Gender Studies agreed that the term gender could be properly applied only to humans, because it involves one's self-concept as man or woman. Sex is a biological concept; gender is a human social and cultural concept."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ketterson|first=Ellen D.|author-link=Ellen Ketterson|date=2005|title=Evolution's Rainbow: Diversity, Gender, and Sexuality in Nature and People|journal=BioScience|volume=55|issue=2|pages=178|doi=10.1641/0006-3568(2005)055[0178:dahg]2.0.co;2|issn=0006-3568|doi-access=free}}</ref> However, {{Harvcoltxt|Poiani |2010}} notes that the question of whether behavioural similarities across species can be associated with gender identity or not is "an issue of no easy resolution",{{sfn|Poiani|2010|p=2}} and suggests that mental states, such as gender identity, are more accessible in humans than other species due to their capacity for language.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Poiani|first=Aldo|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/665835558|title=Animal homosexuality: a biosocial perspective|date=2010|publisher=Cambridge University Press|others=A. F. Dixson|isbn=978-0-511-78958-8|location=New York|pages=2|oclc=665835558|access-date=8 September 2021|archive-date=17 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220217115729/https://www.worldcat.org/title/animal-homosexuality-a-biosocial-perspective/oclc/665835558|url-status=live}}</ref> Poiani suggests that the potential number of species with members possessing a gender identity must be limited due to the requirement for [[Self-awareness|self-consciousness]].{{sfn|Poiani|2010|p=36}}

[[Jacques Balthazart]] suggests that "there is no animal model for studying sexual identity. It is impossible to ask an animal, whatever its species, to what sex it belongs."<ref>{{Cite book|last=Balthazart|first=Jacques|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3fjGjlcVINkC&q=the+biology+of+gender+identity|title=The Biology of Homosexuality|date=2012|publisher=Oxford University Press, US|isbn=978-0-19-983882-0|pages=5|language=en|author-link=Jacques Balthazart|access-date=18 October 2021|archive-date=17 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220217115728/https://books.google.com/books?id=3fjGjlcVINkC&q=the+biology+of+gender+identity|url-status=live}}</ref> He notes that "this would imply that the animal is aware of its own body and sex, which is far from proved", despite recent research demonstrating sophisticated cognitive skills among non-human primates and other species.{{sfn|Balthazart|2012}} {{Harvcoltxt|Hird|2006}} has also stated that whether or not non-human animals consider themselves to be feminine or masculine is a "difficult, if not impossible, question to answer", as this would require "judgements about what constitutes femininity or masculinity in any given species". Nonetheless, she asserts that "non-human animals do experience femininity and masculinity to the extent that any given species' behaviour is gender segregated."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hird|first=Myra J.|date=2006|title=Animal Transex|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08164640500470636|journal=Australian Feminist Studies|language=en|volume=21|issue=49|pages=35–50|doi=10.1080/08164640500470636|s2cid=214614711|issn=0816-4649|access-date=8 September 2021|archive-date=8 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210908152207/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08164640500470636|url-status=live}}</ref>

Despite this, Poiani and Dixson emphasise the applicability of the concept of gender ''role'' to non-human animals{{sfn|Poiani|2010|p=2}} such as [[rodents]]{{sfn|Poiani|2010|p=141,164}} throughout their book.{{sfn|Poiani|2010|p=20,105,110}} The concept of gender role has also been applied to non-human primates such as [[Rhesus macaque|rhesus monkeys]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/181029707|title=Sex and the brain|date=2007|publisher=MIT Press|editor-first1=Gillian |editor-last1=Einstein|isbn=978-0-262-27224-7|location=Cambridge, Mass.|pages=34 |quote=While the exact forms of play that characterize prepubertal male humans and prepubertal male rhesus may not be identical, both of these primates show a clear division of preadolescent activities into gender roles. |oclc=181029707|access-date=8 September 2021|archive-date=17 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220217115729/https://www.worldcat.org/title/sex-and-the-brain/oclc/181029707|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last1=Goy|first1=Robert W.|title=Psychological and Anatomical Consequences of Prenatal Exposure to Androgens in Female Rhesus*|date=2020-04-14|url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9780429283116-9|work=Toxicity of Hormones in Perinatal Life|pages=127–142|publisher=CRC Press|access-date=2021-09-08|last2=Uno|first2=Hideo|last3=Sholl|first3=Samuel A.|doi=10.1201/9780429283116-9|isbn=978-0429283116|s2cid=81167171|archive-date=17 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220217115731/https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.1201/9780429283116-9/psychological-anatomical-consequences-prenatal-exposure-androgens-female-rhesus-robert-goy-hideo-uno-samuel-sholl|url-status=live}}</ref>