Editing Frederick Barbarossa (section)

===First Italian Campaign: 1154–55===
Frederick undertook six expeditions into Italy. In the first, beginning in October 1154,<ref>{{harvp|Comyn|1851|p=227}}</ref> his plan was to launch a campaign against the [[Normans]] under King [[William&nbsp;I of Sicily]].<ref name="Comyn, pg. 230"/> He marched down and almost immediately encountered resistance to his authority. Obtaining the submission of [[Milan]], he [[Siege of Tortona|successfully besieged]] [[Tortona]] on 13 February 1155, razing it to the ground on 18 April.<ref>{{harvp|Comyn|1851|p=228}}</ref> He moved on to [[Pavia]], where he according to some historians received the [[Iron Crown of Lombardy|Iron Crown]] and the title of [[King of Italy]] on 24 April in the [[San Michele Maggiore, Pavia|Basilica of San Michele Maggiore]].<ref>{{harvp|Comyn|1851|p=229}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.academia.edu/6104106|title=Representing Royal Authority at San Michele Maggiore in Pavia|work=Zeitschrift fur Kunstgeschichte 77 (2014) |access-date=30 July 2022|last1=Elliott |first1=Gillian }}</ref> Other historians instead suggest his coronation took place in [[Monza]] on 15 April.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Federico I imperatore, detto il Barbarossa nell'Enciclopedia Treccani |url=https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/federico-i-imperatore-detto-il-barbarossa |access-date=2022-10-28 |website=www.treccani.it |language=it-IT}}</ref> Moving through [[Bologna]] and [[Tuscany]], he was soon approaching the city of Rome. There, [[Pope Adrian&nbsp;IV]] was struggling with the forces of the republican city commune led by [[Arnold of Brescia]], a student of [[Abelard]].{{citation needed|date=August 2018}} As a sign of good faith, Frederick dismissed the ambassadors from the revived Roman Senate,<ref name="Comyn, pg. 230"/> and Imperial forces suppressed the republicans. Arnold was captured and hanged for treason and rebellion. Despite his unorthodox teaching concerning theology, Arnold was not charged with heresy.<ref>{{harvp|Cantor|1969|pp=368–369}}</ref>
[[File: Pietre sulle quali veniva posto il trono durante le incoronazioni.jpg|left|280px|thumb| [[Pavia]], [[San Michele Maggiore, Pavia|Basilica of San Michele Maggiore]], the five stones above which the throne was placed during coronation of Frederick I.]]
As Frederick approached the gates of Rome, the Pope advanced to meet him. At the royal tent the king received him, and after kissing the pope's feet, Frederick expected to receive the traditional kiss of peace.<ref name="Comyn, pg. 231">{{harvp|Comyn|1851|p=231}}</ref> Frederick had declined to hold the Pope's stirrup while leading him to the tent, however, so Adrian refused to give the kiss until this protocol had been complied with.<ref name="Comyn, pg. 231"/> Frederick hesitated, and Adrian&nbsp;IV withdrew; after a day's negotiation, Frederick agreed to perform the required ritual, reportedly muttering, "''Pro Petro, non Adriano'' – For Peter, not for Adrian."<ref name="Comyn, pg. 231"/> Rome was still in an uproar over the fate of Arnold of Brescia, so rather than marching through the streets of Rome, Frederick and Adrian retired to the [[Holy See|Vatican]].

[[File:WikiSiegel Barbarossa.JPG|thumb|Wax seal of Frederick I, used in the imperial residence of Pfalz Wimpfen]]
The next day, 18 June 1155, Adrian&nbsp;IV crowned Frederick I [[Holy Roman Emperor]] at [[St Peter's Basilica]], amidst the acclamations of the German army.<ref name="Comyn, pg. 232">{{harvp|Comyn|1851|p=232}}</ref> The Romans began to riot, and Frederick spent his coronation day putting down the revolt, resulting in the deaths of over 1,000 Romans and many more thousands injured. The next day, Frederick, Adrian, and the German army travelled to [[Tivoli, Italy|Tivoli]]. From there, a combination of the unhealthy Italian summer and the effects of his year-long absence from Germany meant he was forced to put off his planned campaign against the Normans of [[Sicily]].<ref name="Comyn, pg. 232"/> On their way northwards, they attacked [[Spoleto]] and encountered the ambassadors of Manuel&nbsp;I Comnenus, who showered Frederick with costly gifts. At [[Verona]], Frederick declared his fury with the rebellious Milanese before finally returning to Germany.<ref>{{harvp|Comyn|1851|p=233}}</ref>

Disorder was again rampant in Germany, especially in Bavaria, but general peace was restored by Frederick's vigorous, but conciliatory, measures. The duchy of Bavaria was transferred from [[Henry II, Duke of Austria|Henry&nbsp;II Jasomirgott]], margrave of Austria, to Frederick's formidable younger cousin [[Henry the Lion]], [[Duke of Saxony]],<ref name="harvp|Chisholm|1911|p=45"/> of the [[House of Guelph]], whose father had previously held both duchies.<ref>{{harvp|Comyn|1851|p=203}}</ref> Henry&nbsp;II Jasomirgott was named [[Duke of Austria]] in compensation for his loss of Bavaria. As part of his general policy of concessions of formal power to the German princes and ending the civil wars within the kingdom, Frederick further appeased Henry by issuing him with the [[Privilegium Minus]], granting him unprecedented entitlements as Duke of Austria. This was a large concession on the part of Frederick, who realized that Henry the Lion had to be accommodated, even to the point of sharing some power with him. Frederick could not afford to make an outright enemy of Henry.<ref>{{harvp|Davis|1957|p=319}}</ref>

On 9 June 1156 at [[Würzburg]], Frederick married [[Beatrice I, Countess of Burgundy|Beatrice of Burgundy]], daughter and heiress of [[Reginald III, Count of Burgundy|Renaud&nbsp;III]], thus adding to his possessions the sizeable realm of the [[County of Burgundy]]. In an attempt to create comity, Emperor Frederick proclaimed the [[Peace of the Land]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://avalon.law.yale.edu/medieval/peace.asp |title=Peace of the Land Established by Frederick Barbarossa Between 1152 and 1157 A.D. |work=[[Avalon Project|The Avalon Project]] |date=29 December 1998 |publisher=[[Yale Law School]]}}</ref> written between 1152 and 1157, which enacted punishments for a variety of crimes, as well as systems for adjudicating many disputes. He also declared himself the sole Augustus of the Roman world, ceasing to recognise Manuel&nbsp;I at Constantinople.<ref>{{harvp|Comyn|1851|p=234}}</ref>