Editing First Anglo-Dutch War (section)

==War==
The Commonwealth began to prepare for war, but as both nations were unready, war might have been delayed if not for an unfortunate encounter between the fleets of Dutch Lieutenant-Admiral [[Maarten Tromp]] and General at Sea [[Robert Blake (admiral)|Robert Blake]] in the [[English Channel]] near [[Dover, England|Dover]] on 29 May 1652. An ordinance of Cromwell required all foreign fleets in the [[North Sea]] or the Channel to dip their flag in salute, reviving an ancient right the English had long insisted on. Tromp himself was fully aware of the need to give this mark of courtesy, but partly through a misunderstanding and partly out of resentment among the seamen, it was not given promptly, and Blake opened fire,<ref name="Groenveld547,565">Groenveld (1987), pp. 547, 565</ref> starting the brief [[Battle of Dover (1652)|Battle of Dover]]. Tromp lost two ships but escorted his convoy to safety.<ref name="Low35-6">Low (1872), pp. 35–36</ref>

The States of Holland sent their highest official, the [[Grand Pensionary]] [[Adriaan Pauw]], to London in a last desperate attempt to prevent war, but in vain: English demands had become so extreme that no self-respecting state could meet them. War was declared by the English Parliament on 10 July 1652. The Dutch diplomats realised what was at stake: one of the departing ambassadors said, "The English are about to attack a mountain of gold; we are about to attack a mountain of iron." The Dutch Orangists were jubilant however; they expected that either victory or defeat would bring them to power.{{citation needed|date=December 2019}}

[[File:Abraham Willaerts, First Dutch War.jpeg|thumb|''Action between ships in the First Dutch War, 1652–1654'' by [[Abraham Willaerts]], which may depict the [[Battle of the Kentish Knock]]. It is a pastiche of popular subjects of naval painting of the time showing the ''[[Dutch ship Brederode (1644)|Brederode]]'' (right) duels ''[[English ship Resolution (1650)|Resolution]]'' and ''[[English ship Sovereign|Sovereign]]'' (far left).]]

The first months of the war saw English attacks against the Dutch convoys. Blake was sent with 60 ships to disrupt Dutch fishing in the North Sea and Dutch trade with the Baltic, leaving Ayscue with a small force to guard the Channel. On 12 July 1652, Ayscue intercepted a Dutch convoy returning from Portugal, capturing seven merchantmen and destroying three. Tromp gathered a fleet of 96 ships to attack Ayscue, but southerly winds kept him in the North Sea. Turning north to pursue Blake, Tromp caught up with the English fleet off the [[Shetland Islands]], but a storm scattered his ships and there was no battle. On 26 August 1652, an outward-bound Dutch convoy with an escort of director's ships from [[Zeeland]] commanded by [[Michiel de Ruyter]], who held the rank of ''commandeur'', broadly equivalent to [[commodore (rank)|commodore]] was sighted by Ayscue, with a more numerous squadron of warships and armed merchant ships. Ayscue attempted to attack the convoy with around nine of his strongest and fastest warships, but De Ruyter counter-attacked and, in the [[Battle of Plymouth]], surrounded the English warships which were not supported by their armed merchant ships. The convoy escaped, Ayscue was relieved of his command and de Ruyter gained prestige in his first independent command.<ref name="Bruijn104-5">Bruijn (2011), pp. 104–105</ref><ref name="Low37">Low (1872), p. 37</ref>

Tromp had also been suspended after the failure in Shetland, and Vice-Admiral [[Witte de With]] was given command. The Dutch convoys being at the time safe from English attack, De With saw an opportunity to concentrate his forces and gain control of the seas. At the [[Battle of the Kentish Knock]] on 8 October 1652 the Dutch attacked the English fleet near the mouth of the [[River Thames]], but were beaten back with many casualties.<ref name="Bruijn61">Bruijn (2011), p. 61</ref><ref name="Low38">Low (1872), p. 38</ref> The English Parliament, believing the Dutch to be near defeat, sent away twenty ships to strengthen the position in the [[Mediterranean]]. This division of forces left Blake with only 42 men of war by November, while the Dutch were making every effort to reinforce their fleet. This division led to an English defeat by Tromp in the [[Battle of Dungeness]] in December, while it failed to save the English Mediterranean fleet, largely destroyed at the [[Battle of Leghorn]] in March 1653.<ref name="Low40-1">Low (1872), pp. 40–41</ref>

The Dutch had effective control of the Channel, the North Sea, and the Mediterranean, with English ships blockaded in port. As a result, Cromwell convinced Parliament to begin secret peace negotiations with the Dutch. In February 1653, Adriaan Pauw responded favourably, sending a letter from the States of Holland indicating their sincere desire to reach a peace agreement. However, these discussions, which were only supported by a bare majority of members of the Rump parliament, dragged on without much progress for almost a year.<ref name="Coward127">Coward (2002), p. 127</ref><ref name="Pincus104">Pincus (2002), p. 104</ref>

[[File:Witmont, Battle of the Gabbard.jpg|thumb|left|''The [[Battle of the Gabbard]], 12 June 1653'' by [[Heerman Witmont]], shows the Dutch flagship [[Dutch ship Brederode (1644)|''Brederode'']], right, in action with the [[English ship Resolution (1650)|''Resolution'']].]]

Though the politicians were close to ending the conflict, the naval war continued and, over the winter of 1652–53, the English fleet repaired its ships and considered its tactics. All of the sea battles fought in 1652 were chaotic, with boarding and capturing enemy ships a favoured tactic, particularly of the Dutch. Squadrons or even individual ships fought without regard to the rest of the fleet, although the English fleet instructions of 1650 emphasised the importance of supporting other ships of the same squadron, particularly the flagship.<ref name="Palmer129">Palmer (1997), p. 129</ref> In the first major battle of 1653, the English fleet challenged the Dutch in the three-day [[Battle of Portland]], which began in 28 February. They captured at least 20 Dutch merchant ships, captured or destroyed at least eight and possibly twelve warships and drove the Dutch from the Channel.<ref name="Low41-2">Low (1872), pp. 41–42</ref> Like the battles of 1652, this was chaotic, but the most notable tactical events happened in the first day, when Tromp led the whole Dutch fleet against about two dozen English ships at the rear of the fleet, hoping to overpower them before the bulk of the English fleet could come to their aid. However, the outnumbered English ships extemporised a line ahead formation and managed to keep the Dutch at bay through coordinated heavy gunfire.<ref name="Palmer132-3">Palmer (1997), pp. 132–133</ref>

Whether as a direct result of the Battle of Portland or the accumulation of experience gained over some years, in March 1653, Robert Blake wrote the [[Sailing and Fighting Instructions]], a major overhaul of English [[Naval tactics in the Age of Sail|naval tactics]], containing the first formal description of the [[line of battle]].<ref name="Palmer127,133">Palmer (1997), pp. 127, 133</ref> The success of this new formation was evident in the [[Battle of the Gabbard]] in June 1653, when the English fleet not only defeated the Dutch in a long-range artillery duel but suffered so little damage that it could maintain a blockade rather than sending many ships to port for repairs.<ref name="Palmer134">Palmer (1997), p. 134</ref> The Dutch, in contrast, relied less on linear tactics, preferring to close with English ships to board and capture then as late as the [[Battle of Lowestoft]] in 1665, and they also retained numbers of slow and badly armed hired merchant ships in their fleet as late as that battle, when the English fleet was already questioning their use.<ref name="Palmer137-8">Palmer (1997), pp. 137–138</ref>

In mid-March 1653, the States of Holland sent a detailed peace proposal to the English ''[[Rump Parliament]]'', where it generated a fierce debate and a slim majority for a response to be made. The response made first to the States of Holland and then to the States General in April was critical of the Dutch proposals, but at least allowed discussions to start.<ref name="Pincus105-6">Pincus (2002), pp. 105–106</ref> Little was achieved until both the Rump Parliament and its short-lived successor the [[Barebone's Parliament|Nominated Parliament]] had been dissolved, the latter in December 1653.<ref name="Pincus105-6"/> The following month the States General asked for negotiations to be restarted and in May Cromwell agreed to receive Dutch envoys in London.<ref name="Pincus120">Pincus (2002), p. 120</ref> In mid June, [[Johan de Witt]] persuaded the States General to send commissioners to London to negotiate peace terms and Cromwell was receptive, although he was insistent that the Dutch republic must ensure the House of Orange would not become dominant again, and declined to repeal the Navigation Act.<ref name="Coward127-8">Coward (2002), pp. 127–128</ref>

Cromwell again put forward his plan for a political union between the two nations to the four Dutch envoys who had arrived in London in late June, but they emphatically rejected this.<ref name="Pincus128, 140">Pincus (2002), pp. 128, 140</ref> He also wished to avoid further conflict with the Dutch Republic, as it was planning war with Spain.<ref name="Rommelse24">Rommelse (2006), p. 24</ref> Cromwell then proposed a military alliance against Spain, promising to repeal the Navigation Act in return for Dutch assistance in the conquest of [[Spanish America]]: this too was rejected.<ref name="Pincus185">Pincus (2002), p. 185</ref> Cromwell then fell back on a proposal of 27 articles, two of which were unacceptable to the Dutch: that all Royalists had to be expelled, and that Denmark, the ally of the Republic, should be abandoned in its war against Sweden.<ref name="Pincus181">Pincus (2002), p. 181</ref> In the end Cromwell accepted that the 25 agreed articles would form the basis for peace.

Meanwhile, the English navy tried to gain control over the North Sea, and in the two-day Battle of the Gabbard in June drove the Dutch back to their home ports with the loss of 17 warships captured or destroyed, starting a blockade of the Dutch coast, which led to a crippling of the Dutch economy.<ref name="Bruijn62">Bruijn (2011), p. 62</ref><ref name="Low43-4">Low (1872), pp. 43–44</ref> The Dutch were unable to feed their dense urban population without a regular supply of Baltic [[wheat]] and [[rye]]; prices of these commodities soared and the poor were soon unable to buy food, and starvation ensued.

[[File:SA 824-Anno 1653. Maarten Harpertsz. Tromp sneuvelt.jpg|thumb|right|A 19th-century depiction of [[Maarten Tromp]]'s death at the [[Battle of Scheveningen]]]]

The final battle of the war was the hard-fought and bloody [[Battle of Scheveningen]] in August, fought because the Dutch were desperate to break the English blockade. This was a tactical victory for the English fleet, which captured or destroyed at least a dozen and possibly 27 Dutch warships for the loss of two or three English ones, and captured or killed some 2,000 men including Tromp, who was killed early in the battle, for a loss of 500 English dead.<ref name="Low43-4"/> However, despite their heavy losses of men and ships, the Dutch fleet was able to retreat to the [[Texel]], and the English had to abandon their blockade, so the Dutch achieved their aim.<ref name="Bruijn62-3">Bruijn (2011), pp. 62–63</ref> The death of Tromp was a blow to Dutch morale, which increased the Dutch desire to end the war: similar feelings arose in England. Although many had been enriched by the war, trade as a whole had suffered. However, in September, the Dutch fleet, under [[Witte de With]], was able to resume its operations. It successfully disembarked 400 merchant ships and returned with an equivalent number, all carrying valuable goods from the East Indies, which demonstrated the reopening of the sea routes.{{sfnp|Van Lennep|1880|p=45}}

Allied with Denmark and maintaining a formidable presence at the Danish Sound, the Dutch effectively put an end to English trade in the Baltic region. Throughout 1653, not a single English vessel passed through the [[Øresund|Sound]]. In the Mediterranean, the Dutch had achieved similar success. Additionally, in the East Indies, the Dutch East India Company had swiftly established maritime dominance, spanning from the [[Persian Gulf]] to the [[South China Sea]]. The English agent at Livorno, [[Charles Longland]], reported to London, that the Dutch had been heavily defeated in home waters but added ''yet our losses here have been so visible to all Europe, Asia and Africa that they will not believe but that our condition is as bad at home.'' After Scheveningen, the Dutch also turned to using smaller warships and [[commerce raiding]] with the result that, by November Cromwell, despite military success in the North Sea, was anxious to make peace as the Dutch were capturing numerous English merchant ships.<ref name="Israel721">Israel (1995), p. 721</ref>

Despite this the Dutch Republic was also unable to sustain a prolonged naval war as English privateers inflicted serious damage on Dutch shipping. At the time the Dutch merchant fleet was three times larger than the English, and it is estimated that the Dutch lost between 1,000 and 1,700 vessels (the most reliable estimate is from Amsterdam Burgomasters who claimed the Dutch lost 1,200{{sfn|Israel|1989|p=207-213}}) of all sizes to privateers in this war. This accounted for 8% of the total Dutch mercantile fleet, amounted to double the value of England's entire ocean-going merchant fleet.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Jan de Vries|author2=Ad van der Woude|title=The First Modern Economy. Success, Failure, and Perseverance of the Dutch Economy, 1500-1815|year=1997|publisher=Cambridge U.P.|pages=402–404}}</ref> These losses were three to four times as many as the English lost (440 ships in total{{sfn|Hugill|1993|p=120}}), and more than the total Dutch losses for the other two Anglo-Dutch wars in the 17th century.{{sfn|Davis|2012|pp=12-13, 55}} This was the greatest single maritime disaster suffered by the Dutch world [[Entrepôt]] during its great age.{{sfn|Israel|1989|p=207-213}} In addition, as [[Impressment|press-ganging]] was forbidden, enormous sums had to be paid to attract enough sailors to man the fleet.<ref name="Fox69-70">Fox (2018), pp. 69–70</ref> The Dutch were unable to defend all of their colonies and it had too few colonists or troops in [[Dutch Brazil]] to prevent the more numerous Portuguese, dissatisfied by Dutch rule, from reconquest.<ref name="Boxer245-7">Boxer (1957), pp. 245–257</ref> In Holland itself the war took its toll – shipping businesses had ceased trading and work was hard to find. In Amsterdam fifteen hundred houses were untenanted, many observed a large number of roaming beggars and grass was growing in the streets.<ref>{{cite book |first=G M |last=Trevelyan |author1-link=G M Trevelyan |title=England Under the Stuarts |date=1912 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |pages=303–04 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tmINAAAAIAAJ}}</ref> The condition of the country had left the Dutch no choice but to accept Cromwells terms.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Baker |first1=Nancy Eloise |title=Anglo-Dutch Relations, 1654-1664 |date=1960 |publisher=University of Wisconsin--Madison |pages=7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0scxAAAAMAAJ |quote=The English had very definitely won the war. The war had broken up the trade of the United Provinces and reduced the home country to a state of ruin.}}</ref>

Peace negotiations continued until March 1654 when Cromwell demanded a change in that the then-four-year-old [[William III of England|Prince of Orange]] should be excluded from future government appointments, like the stadtholderate, or the [[Captain general|captaincy-general]] of the [[Dutch States Army|States Army]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Olthof |first=Kees |year=2011 |title=Acte van Seclusie, een gesouffleerd Cromwell Initiatief? |url=http://igitur-archive.library.uu.nl/student-theses/2011-0812-200610/werkstuk%20Diplomatieke%20Praktijken%20pdf.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111230459/http://igitur-archive.library.uu.nl/student-theses/2011-0812-200610/werkstuk%20Diplomatieke%20Praktijken%20pdf.pdf |archive-date=11 November 2013 |access-date=11 April 2013}}, pp. 18–26</ref> This was at first rejected, but the Dutch eventually accepted, and Peace was declared on 15 April 1654 with the signing of the [[Treaty of Westminster (1654)|Treaty of Westminster]] and ratified by all parties by 22 April.{{sfn|Trevelyan|1912|pp=303-04}}{{sfnp|Bruijn|2017|p=61}}