Editing Feudalism (section)

=== The feudal revolution in France ===
In its origin, the feudal grant of land had been seen in terms of a personal bond between lord and vassal, but with time and the transformation of fiefs into hereditary holdings, the nature of the system came to be seen as a form of "politics of land" (an expression used by the historian [[Marc Bloch]]). The 11th century in France saw what has been called by historians a "[[France in the Middle Ages#Vassalage and feudal land|feudal revolution]]" or "mutation" and a "fragmentation of powers" (Bloch) that was unlike the development of [[feudalism in England]] or Italy or [[Feudalism in the Holy Roman Empire|in Germany]] in the same period or later:{{sfn|Wickham|2010|pp=522–523}} Counties and duchies began to break down into smaller holdings as [[castellan]]s and lesser ''[[seigneur]]s'' took control of local lands, and (as [[Count|comital]] families had done before them) lesser lords usurped/privatized a wide range of prerogatives and rights of the state, including travel dues, market dues, fees for using woodlands, obligations, use the lord's mill and, most importantly, the highly profitable rights of justice, etc.{{sfn|Wickham|2010|p=518}} (what [[Georges Duby]] called collectively the "''seigneurie banale''"{{sfn|Wickham|2010|p=518}}). Power in this period became more personal.{{sfn|Wickham|2010|p=522}}

This "fragmentation of powers" was not, however, systematic throughout France, and in certain counties (such as [[County of Flanders|Flanders]], [[Duchy of Normandy|Normandy]], [[County of Anjou|Anjou]], [[County of Toulouse|Toulouse]]), counts were able to maintain control of their lands into the 12th century or later.{{sfn|Wickham|2010|p=523}} Thus, in some regions (like [[Normandy]] and [[Flanders]]), the vassal/feudal system was an effective tool for [[Duke|ducal]] and comital control, linking vassals to their lords; but in other regions, the system led to significant confusion, all the more so as vassals could and frequently did pledge themselves to two or more lords. In response to this, the idea of a "liege lord" was developed (where the obligations to one lord are regarded as superior) in the 12th century.<ref>Elizabeth M. Hallam. ''Capetian France 987–1328'', p.17.</ref>