Editing Environmental determinism (section)

=== Effects of species endowments, climate, and continental axes prior to 1500 ===
{{Main|Guns, Germs, and Steel}}
In the [[Pulitzer Prize]] winning ''[[Guns, Germs, and Steel]]'' (1999), author [[Jared Diamond]] points to geography as the answer to why certain states were able to grow and develop faster and stronger than others. His theory cited the natural environment and raw materials a civilization had as factors for success, instead of popular century-old claims of racial and cultural superiority. Diamond says that these natural endowments began with the dawn of man, and favored Eurasian civilizations due to their location along similar latitudes, suitable farming climate, and early animal domestication.<ref name="Guns, Germs, and Steel">{{cite book | last1=Diamond | first1=Jared | title=Guns, germs, and steel | url=https://archive.org/details/gunsgermssteelfa00diam_1 | url-access=registration | date=1997 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/gunsgermssteelfa00diam_1/page/n38 1] | publisher=Jonathan Cape | isbn=978-0-224-03809-6}}</ref>

Diamond argues that early states located along the same latitude lines were uniquely suited to take advantage of similar climates, making it easier for crops, livestock, and farming techniques to spread. Crops such as [[wheat]] and [[barley]] were simple to grow and easy to harvest, and regions suitable for their cultivation saw high population densities and the growth of early cities. The ability to domesticate herd animals, which had no natural fear of humans, high birth rates, and an innate hierarchy, gave some civilizations the advantages of free labor, fertilizers, and war animals. The east–west orientation of Eurasia allowed for knowledge capital to spread quickly, and writing systems to keep track of advanced farming techniques gave people the ability to store and build upon a knowledge base across generations. Craftsmanship flourished as a surplus of food from farming allowed some groups the freedom to explore and create, which led to the development of [[metallurgy]] and advances in technology. While the advantageous geography helped to develop early societies, the close proximity in which humans and their animals lived led to the spread of disease across Eurasia. Over several centuries, rampant disease decimated populations, but ultimately led to disease resistant communities. Diamond suggests that these chains of causation led to European and Asian civilizations holding a dominant place in the world today.<ref name="Guns, Germs, and Steel" />

Diamond uses the Spanish [[conquistador]]s' conquering of the Americas as a case study for his theory. He argues that the Europeans took advantage of their environment to build large and complex states complete with advanced technology and weapons. The [[Incans]] and other native groups were not as fortunate, suffering from a north–south orientation that prevented the flow of goods and knowledge across the continent. The Americas also lacked the animals, metals, and complex writing systems of Eurasia which prevented them from achieving the military or biological protections needed to fight off the European threat.<ref name="Guns, Germs, and Steel" />

Diamond's theory has not gone without criticism.
* It was notably attacked for not providing enough detail regarding causation of environmental variables, and for leaving logical gaps in reasoning. Geographer Andrew Sluyter argued that Diamond was just as ignorant as the racists of the 19th century. Sluyter challenged Diamond's theory since it seemed to suggest that environmental conditions lead to gene selection, which then lead to wealth and power for certain civilizations. Sluyter also attacks environmental determinism by condemning it as a highly studied and popular field based entirely on Diamond's "quick and dirty" combination of natural and social sciences.<ref name="Sluyter 2003" />
* [[Daron Acemoglu]] and [[James A. Robinson (Harvard University)|James A. Robinson]] similarly criticized Diamond's work in their book ''[[Why Nations Fail]]''. They contend that the theory is outdated and can not effectively explain differences in economic growth after 1500 or the reasons why states that are geographically close can exhibit vast differences in wealth. They instead favored an institutional approach in which a society's success or failure is based on the underlying strength of its institutions.<ref name="Crown Business" /> Writing in response to institutional arguments, Diamond agreed that institutions are an important cause, but argued that their development is often heavily influenced by geography, such as the clear regional pattern in Africa where the northern and southern countries are wealthier than those in the tropical regions.<ref name="GGS-afterword">{{cite book | last1=Diamond | first1=Jared | title=Guns, germs, and steel | edition=2017 | date=1997 | pages= | chapter=Afterword | publisher=Jonathan Cape | isbn=978-0-224-03809-6}}</ref>