Editing Empress Matilda (section)

==Return to Normandy==

===Marriage to Geoffrey of Anjou===
[[File:Geoffrey of Anjou Monument.jpg|thumb|left|upright|alt=Picture of Geoffrey of Anjou|Contemporary depiction of [[Geoffrey of Anjou]], Matilda's second husband]]
Matilda returned to Normandy in 1125 and spent about a year at the royal court, where her father was still hoping that his second marriage would generate a son.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|p=51}}; {{Harvnb|Pain|1978|p=18}}</ref> If this failed to happen, Matilda was Henry's preferred choice, and he declared that she was to be his rightful successor if he should not have another legitimate son.<ref name=Hollister2003P309>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|p=309}}</ref> The Anglo-Norman barons were gathered together at Westminster on Christmas 1126, where they swore in January to recognise Matilda and any future legitimate heir she might have.<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|p=309}}; {{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|p=51}}</ref>{{refn|Medieval chroniclers' accounts of this oath vary on the points of detail. William of Malmesbury stated that the nobles present recognised Matilda as the legitimate heir on the basis of her paternal and maternal royal descent; [[John of Worcester]] described the inheritance of England as being conditional on Matilda having a legitimate male heir; the Anglo-Saxon chronicle suggested that an oath was given concerning the inheritance of both England and Normandy; neither Orderic or Henry of Huntingdon recorded the event at all. Some chronicler accounts may have been influenced by Stephen's acquisition of the throne in 1135 and the later events of the Anarchy.<ref>{{harvnb|Green|2009|pp=193–194}}</ref>|group="nb"}}

Henry began to formally look for a new husband for Matilda in early 1127 and received various offers from princes within the Empire.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|p=51}}</ref> His preference was to use Matilda's marriage to secure the southern borders of Normandy by marrying her to [[Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou|Geoffrey]], the eldest son of Count [[Fulk V of Anjou]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|pp=51–52}}</ref> Henry's control of Normandy had faced numerous challenges since he had conquered it in 1106, and the latest threat came from his nephew William Clito, the new count of Flanders, who enjoyed the support of the French king.<ref name="Chibnall 1991 54–55">{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|pp=54–55}}</ref> It was essential to Henry that he not face a threat from the south as well as the east of Normandy.<ref name=Chibnall1991P54>{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|p=54}}</ref> William Adelin had married Fulk's daughter [[Matilda of Anjou|Matilda]], which would have cemented an alliance between Henry and Anjou, but the ''White Ship'' disaster put an end to this.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|pp=38, 54}}</ref> Henry and Fulk argued over the fate of the marriage dowry, and this had encouraged Fulk to turn to support William Clito instead.<ref name=Hollister2003P290>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|p=290}}</ref> Henry's solution was now to negotiate the marriage of Matilda to Geoffrey, recreating the former alliance.<ref name="Chibnall 1991 54–55"/>

Matilda appears to have been unimpressed by the prospect of marrying Geoffrey of Anjou.<ref name=Chibnall1991P55>{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|p=55}}</ref> She felt that marrying the son of a count diminished her imperial status, and she was probably also unhappy about marrying someone so much younger than she was; Matilda was 25 and Geoffrey was 13.<ref name=Chibnall1991P55/> [[Hildebert of Lavardin|Hildebert]], the [[Archbishop of Tours]], eventually intervened to persuade her to go along with the engagement.<ref name=Chibnall1991P55/> Matilda finally agreed, and she travelled to Rouen in May 1127 with Robert of Gloucester and Brian Fitz Count where she was formally betrothed to Geoffrey.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|pp=55–56}}</ref> Over the course of the next year, Fulk decided to depart for Jerusalem, where he hoped to become king, leaving his possessions to Geoffrey.<ref name=Chibnall1991P56>{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|p=56}}</ref> Henry knighted his future son-in-law, and Matilda and Geoffrey were married a week later on 17 June 1128 in [[Le Mans]] by the bishops of [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Le Mans|Le Mans]] and [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Séez|Séez]].<ref name=Chibnall1991P56/> Fulk finally left Anjou for Jerusalem in 1129, declaring Geoffrey the count of Anjou and Maine.<ref>{{harvnb|Chibnall|1991|pp=56, 60}}</ref>

===Disputes===
The marriage proved difficult, as the couple did not particularly like each other.<ref name="Hollister 2003 463">{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|p=463}}; {{harvnb|Chibnall|1991|p=57}}</ref> There was a further dispute over Matilda's dowry; she was granted various castles in Normandy by Henry, but it was not specified when the couple would actually take possession of them.<ref name=HollisterGreenPP324>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|pp=324–325}}; {{harvnb|Green|2009|pp=202–203}}</ref> It is also unknown whether Henry intended Geoffrey to have any future claim on England or Normandy, and he was probably keeping Geoffrey's status deliberately uncertain.<ref name=HollisterGreenPP324/> Soon after the marriage, Matilda left Geoffrey and returned to Normandy.<ref name="Hollister 2003 463"/> Henry appears to have blamed Geoffrey for the separation, but the couple were finally reconciled in 1131.<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|p=463}}; {{harvnb|Green|2009|pp=58–61}}</ref> Henry summoned Matilda from Normandy, and she arrived in England that August.<ref name="Chibnall 59">{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|p=59}}</ref> It was decided that Matilda would return to Geoffrey at a meeting of the King's great council in September.<ref name="Chibnall 59"/> The council also gave another collective oath of allegiance to recognise her as Henry's heir.<ref name="Chibnall 59"/>{{refn|The cause behind the soured relations is not fully known, though historian Marjorie Chibnall stated, "historians have tended to put the blame on Matilda&nbsp;... This is a hasty judgement based on two or three hostile English chroniclers; such evidence as there is suggests Geoffrey was at least as much to blame".<ref>{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|p=57}}</ref>|group="nb"}}

Matilda gave birth to her first son in March 1133 at Le Mans, the future [[Henry II of England|Henry II]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|p=60}}</ref> Henry I was delighted by the news and came to see her at Rouen.<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|p=465}}; {{harvnb|Green|2009|p=213}}; {{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|p=60}}</ref> At Pentecost 1134, her second son, [[Geoffrey, Count of Nantes|Geoffrey]], was born in Rouen, but the childbirth was extremely difficult and Matilda appeared close to death.<ref name="Chibnall 61">{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|p=61}}</ref> She made arrangements for her will and argued with her father about where she should be buried. Matilda preferred [[Bec Abbey]], but Henry wanted her to be interred at [[Rouen Cathedral]].<ref name="Chibnall 61"/> Matilda recovered, and Henry was overjoyed by the birth of his second grandson, possibly insisting on another round of oaths from his nobility.<ref name="Chibnall 61"/>{{refn|Historians Jim Bradbury and Frank Barlow suggest that an oath was taken in 1131; Marjorie Chibnall is more doubtful that this occurred.<ref>{{harvnb|Bradbury|2009|p=9}}; {{harvnb|Barlow|1999|p=161}}; {{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|p=61}}</ref>|group="nb"}}

From then on, relations became increasingly strained between Matilda and Henry. Matilda and Geoffrey suspected that they lacked genuine support in England for their claim to the throne, and proposed in 1135 that the King should hand over the royal castles in Normandy to Matilda and should insist that the Norman nobility immediately swear allegiance to her.<ref>{{Harvnb|King|2010|pp=38–39}}</ref> This would have given the couple a much more powerful position after Henry's death, but the King angrily refused, probably out of a concern that Geoffrey would try to seize power in Normandy while he was still alive.<ref>{{Harvnb|King|2010|p=38}}; {{Harvnb|Crouch|2008a|p=162}}</ref> A fresh rebellion broke out in southern Normandy, and Geoffrey and Matilda intervened militarily on behalf of the rebels.<ref name=BarlowP162/>

In the middle of this confrontation, Henry unexpectedly fell ill and died near [[Lyons-la-Forêt]].<ref>{{harvnb|Hollister|2003|pp=467, 473}}</ref> It is uncertain what, if anything, Henry said about the succession before his death.<ref name=Chibnall1996P65>{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|p=65}}</ref> Contemporary chronicler accounts were coloured by subsequent events. Sources favourable to Matilda suggested that Henry had reaffirmed his intent to grant all his lands to his daughter, while hostile chroniclers argued that Henry had renounced his former plans and had apologised for having forced the barons to swear an oath of allegiance to her.<ref name=Chibnall1996P65/>

===Road to war===
[[File:North West France 1150.png|thumb|250px|alt=Colour map of Northern France at time of Henry I's death|Northern France around the time of Henry's death; red circles mark major urban centres]]
When news began to spread of Henry I's death, Matilda and Geoffrey were in Anjou, supporting the rebels in their campaign against the royal army, which included a number of Matilda's supporters such as Robert of Gloucester.<ref name=BarlowP162/> Many of these barons had taken an oath to stay in Normandy until the late king was properly buried, which prevented them from returning to England.<ref>{{Harvnb|Crouch|2002|p=246}}</ref> Nonetheless, the couple took the opportunity to march into southern Normandy and seize a number of key castles around [[Argentan]] that had formed Matilda's disputed dowry.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|pp=66–67}}</ref> They then stopped, unable to advance further, pillaging the countryside and facing increased resistance from the Norman nobility and a rebellion in Anjou itself.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|pp=66–67}}; {{Harvnb|Castor|2010|p=72}}</ref> Matilda was by now also pregnant with her third son, [[William FitzEmpress|William]]; opinions vary among historians as to how much this affected her military plans.<ref name="Castor 2010 72">{{Harvnb|Castor|2010|p=72}}; {{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|pp=66–67}}; {{harvnb|Tolhurst|2013|pp=43–44}}</ref>{{refn|Opinions vary among historians as to the role of Matilda's third pregnancy in her decision not to advance further in 1135. Helen Castor, for example, argues that this was a major factor in Matilda's thinking, particularly given the complications in Matilda's earlier pregnancies; Marjorie Chibnall rejects this argument, putting the emphasis on the political and military problems that the Empress faced that year.<ref name="Castor 2010 72"/>|group="nb"}}

Meanwhile, news of Henry's death had reached Stephen of Blois, conveniently placed in Boulogne, and he left for England, accompanied by his military household. Robert of Gloucester had garrisoned the ports of Dover and Canterbury and some accounts suggest that they refused Stephen access when he first arrived.<ref>{{harvnb|Barlow|1999|p=163}}; {{Harvnb|King|2010|p=43}}</ref> Nonetheless Stephen reached the edge of London by 8 December and over the next week he began to seize power in England.<ref>{{Harvnb|King|2010|p=43}}</ref> The crowds in London proclaimed Stephen the new monarch, believing that he would grant the city new rights and privileges in return, and his brother [[Henry, Bishop of Winchester]], delivered the support of the Church to Stephen.<ref>{{Harvnb|King|2010|pp=45–46}}</ref> Stephen had sworn to support Matilda in 1127, but Henry convincingly argued that the late king had been wrong to insist that his court take the oath, and suggested that the King had changed his mind on his deathbed.<ref name=Crouch2002P247>{{Harvnb|Crouch|2002|p=247}}</ref>{{refn|Henry of Winchester was able to persuade [[Hugh Bigod, 1st Earl of Norfolk|Hugh Bigod]], the late king's royal steward, to swear that the King had changed his mind about the succession on his deathbed, nominating Stephen instead. Modern historians, such as Edmund King, doubt that Hugh Bigod's account of Henry I's final hours was truthful.<ref name=King2010P52>{{Harvnb|King|2010|p=52}}</ref>|group="nb"}} Stephen's coronation was held at Westminster Abbey on 22 December.<ref name=King2010P47>{{Harvnb|King|2010|p=47}}</ref>

Following the news that Stephen was gathering support in England, the Norman nobility had gathered at [[Le Neubourg]] to discuss declaring his elder brother Theobald king.<ref>{{Harvnb|King|2010|pp=46–47}}; {{harvnb|Barlow|1999|pp=163–164}}</ref> The Normans argued that the count, as the eldest grandson of William the Conqueror, had the most valid claim over the kingdom and the Duchy, and was certainly preferable to Matilda.<ref>{{harvnb|Barlow|1999|pp=163–164}}</ref> Their discussions were interrupted by the sudden news from England that Stephen's coronation was to occur the next day.<ref name=King2010P47/> Theobald's support immediately ebbed away, as the barons were not prepared to support the division of England and Normandy by opposing Stephen.<ref>{{Harvnb|King|2010|p=47}}; {{harvnb|Barlow|1999|p=163}}</ref>{{refn|The events in Normandy are less well recorded than elsewhere, and the exact sequence of events less certain. Historian Robert Helmerichs, for example, describes some of the inconsistencies in these accounts. Some historians, including David Crouch and Helmerichs, argue that Theobald and Stephen had probably already made a private deal to seize the throne when Henry died.<ref>{{Harvnb|Helmerichs|2001|pp=136–137}}; {{Harvnb|Crouch|2002|p=245}}</ref>|group="nb"}}

Matilda gave birth to her third son William on 22 July 1136 at Argentan, and she then operated out of the border region for the next three years, establishing her household knights on estates around the area.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|pp=68, 71}}</ref> Matilda may have asked [[Ulger]], the [[bishop of Angers]], to garner support for her claim with [[Pope Innocent II]] in Rome, but if she did, Ulger was unsuccessful.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|pp=68–69}}</ref> Geoffrey invaded Normandy in early 1136 and, after a temporary truce, invaded again later the same year, raiding and burning estates rather than trying to hold the territory.<ref name=BarlowP168>{{harvnb|Barlow|1999|p=168}}</ref> Stephen returned to the Duchy in 1137, where he met with Louis VI and Theobald to agree to an informal alliance against Geoffrey and Matilda, to counter the growing [[Counts and dukes of Anjou|Angevin]] power in the region.<ref>{{Harvnb|Crouch|2008b|p=47}}</ref> Stephen formed an army to retake Matilda's Argentan castles, but frictions between his Flemish mercenary forces and the local Norman barons resulted in a battle between the two halves of his army.<ref>{{harvnb|Davis|1977|p=27}}; {{harvnb|Bennett|2000|p=102}}</ref> The Norman forces then deserted the King, forcing Stephen to give up his campaign.<ref>{{harvnb|Davis|1977|p=28}}</ref> Stephen agreed to another truce with Geoffrey, promising to pay him 2,000 marks a year in exchange for peace along the Norman borders.<ref name=BarlowP168/>

In England, Stephen's reign started off well, with lavish gatherings of the royal court that saw him give out grants of land and favours to his supporters.<ref>{{Harvnb|Crouch|2008a|p=29}}; {{Harvnb|King|2010|pp=54–55}}</ref> Stephen received the support of [[Pope Innocent II]], thanks in part to the testimony of Louis and Theobald.<ref>{{Harvnb|Crouch|2002|pp=248–249}}; {{Harvnb|Crouch|2008b|pp=46–47}}</ref> Troubles rapidly began to emerge. Matilda's uncle David I of Scotland invaded the north of England on the news of Henry's death, taking [[Carlisle]], [[Newcastle upon Tyne|Newcastle]] and other key strongholds.<ref name=King2010P52/> Stephen rapidly marched north with an army and met David at [[Durham, England|Durham]], where a temporary compromise was agreed.<ref name=King2010P53>{{Harvnb|King|2010|p=53}}</ref> South Wales rose in rebellion, and by 1137 Stephen was forced to abandon attempts to suppress the revolt.<ref>{{harvnb|Carpenter|2004|pp=164–165}}; {{harvnb|Crouch|1994|pp=258, 260, 262}}</ref> Stephen put down two revolts in the south-west led by [[Baldwin de Redvers]] and Robert of Bampton; Baldwin was released after his capture and travelled to Normandy, where he became a vocal critic of the King.<ref>{{harvnb|Bradbury|2009|pp=27–32}}</ref>

===Revolt===
[[File:Empress Matilda silver penny from the Oxford Mint.jpg|thumb|300px|alt=Picture of a silver penny coin|A Matilda [[silver penny]], minted in [[Oxford]]]]
Matilda's half-brother, Robert of Gloucester, was one of the most powerful Anglo-Norman barons, controlling estates in Normandy as well as the [[Earldom of Gloucester]].<ref name=BarlowP169>{{harvnb|Barlow|1999|p=169}}</ref> In 1138, he rebelled against Stephen, starting the descent into civil war in England.<ref>{{harvnb|Carpenter|2004|p=169}}</ref> Robert renounced his fealty to the King and declared his support for Matilda, which triggered a major regional rebellion in [[Kent]] and across the south-west of England, although he himself remained in Normandy.<ref>{{harvnb|Stringer|1993|p=18}}</ref> Matilda had not been particularly active in asserting her claims to the throne since 1135 and in many ways it was Robert who took the initiative in declaring war in 1138.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|pp=70–71}}; {{harvnb|Bradbury|2009|p=25}}</ref> In France, Geoffrey took advantage of the situation by invading Normandy. David of Scotland also invaded the north of England once again, announcing that he was supporting the claim of Matilda to the throne, pushing south into [[Yorkshire]].<ref name=CarpenterP166/>{{refn|[[David I of Scotland|David I]] was the uncle of both Empress Matilda and [[Matilda of Boulogne]].|group="nb"}}

Stephen responded quickly to the revolts and invasions, paying most of his attention to England rather than Normandy. His wife Matilda was sent to Kent with ships and resources from [[Boulogne]], with the task of retaking the key port of [[Dover]], under Robert's control.<ref name=BarlowP169/> A small number of Stephen's household knights were sent north to help the fight against the Scots, where David's forces were defeated later that year at the [[Battle of the Standard]].<ref name=CarpenterP166>{{harvnb|Carpenter|2004|p=166}}</ref> Despite this victory, however, David still occupied most of the north.<ref name=CarpenterP166/> Stephen himself went west in an attempt to regain control of [[Gloucestershire]], first striking north into the [[Welsh Marches]], taking [[Hereford]] and [[Shrewsbury]], before heading south to [[Bath, Somerset|Bath]].<ref name=BarlowP169/> The town of [[Bristol]] itself proved too strong for him, and Stephen contented himself with raiding and pillaging the surrounding area.<ref name=BarlowP169/> The rebels appear to have expected Robert to intervene with support, but he remained in Normandy throughout the year, trying to persuade the Empress Matilda to invade England herself.<ref>{{harvnb|Bradbury|2009|p=67}}</ref> Dover finally surrendered to the Queen's forces later in the year.<ref name=Crouch2002P256>{{Harvnb|Crouch|2002|p=256}}</ref>

By 1139, an invasion of England by Robert and Matilda appeared imminent. Geoffrey and Matilda had secured much of Normandy and, together with Robert, spent the beginning of the year mobilising forces for a cross-Channel expedition.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|p=74}}</ref> Matilda also appealed to the papacy at the start of the year; her representative, Bishop Ulger, put forward her legal claim to the English throne on the grounds of her hereditary right and the oaths sworn by the barons.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|p=75}}</ref> [[Arnulf of Lisieux]] led Stephen's case, arguing that because Matilda's mother had really been a nun, her claim to the throne was illegitimate.<ref name=Chibnall1991PP7576>{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|pp=75–76}}</ref> The Pope declined to reverse his earlier support for Stephen, but from Matilda's perspective the case usefully established that Stephen's claim was disputed.<ref name=Chibnall1991PP7576/>