Editing Dionysus (section)

==Worship and festivals in Greece==
{{main|Cult of Dionysus}}
{{Ancient Greek religion}}
The worship of Dionysus had become firmly established by the seventh century BC.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3tuKkxU4-ncC&q=dionysus+firmly+bc&pg=PA162|title=Backgrounds of Early Christianity|last=Ferguson|first=Everett|date=2003|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|isbn=9780802822215|language=en}}</ref> He may have been worshiped as early as c. 1500–1100 BC by [[Mycenaean civilization|Mycenaean Greeks]];<ref>He appears as a likely theonym (divine name) in [[Linear B]] tablets as ''di-wo-nu-so'' ([[Chania|KH]] Gq 5 inscription),</ref><ref name="KHGq5" /> and traces of Dionysian-type cult have also been found in ancient [[Minoan Crete]].<ref name=Kerenyi/>

===Dionysia===
{{main|Dionysia}}
The [[Dionysia]], [[Haloa]], [[Ascolia]] and [[Lenaia]] festivals were dedicated to Dionysus.<ref>McConachie, B., Nellhaus, T., Sorgenfrei, F. C., & Underiner, T. (2016). ''Theatre Histories: An Introduction'' (3rd ed.). Routledge.</ref> The [[Rural Dionysia]] (or Lesser Dionysia) was one of the oldest festivals dedicated to Dionysus, begun in [[Attica]], and probably celebrated the cultivation of wines. It was held during the winter month of Poseideon (the time surrounding the winter solstice, modern December or January). The Rural Dionysia centered on a procession, during which participants carried phalluses, long loaves of bread, jars of water and wine as well as other offerings, and young girls carried baskets. The procession was followed by a series of dramatic performances and drama competitions.<ref name=athens_festivals>Sir Arthur Pickard-Cambridge. The Dramatic Festivals of Athens. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1953 (2nd ed. 1968). {{ISBN|0-19-814258-7}}</ref>

The City Dionysia (or Greater Dionysia) took place in urban centers such as [[Athens]] and [[Eleusis]], and was a later development, probably beginning during the sixth century BC. Held three months after the Rural Dionysia, the Greater festival fell near the spring equinox in the month of Elaphebolion (modern March or April). The procession of the City Dionysia was similar to that of the rural celebrations, but more elaborate, and led by participants carrying a wooden statue of Dionysus, and including sacrificial bulls and ornately dressed choruses. The dramatic competitions of the Greater Dionysia also featured more noteworthy poets and playwrights, and prizes for both dramatists and actors in multiple categories.<ref name=athens_festivals/><ref name=Brockett>Brockett, Oscar Gross (1968). History of the Theatre. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. pp. 18–26.</ref>

===Anthesteria===
The [[Anthesteria]] (Ἀνθεστήρια) was an Athenian festival that celebrated the beginning of spring. It spanned three days: Pithoigia (Πιθοίγια, "Jar-Opening"), Choes (Χοαί, "The Pouring") and Chythroi (Χύτροι "The Pots").<ref name=":0">{{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Anthesteria |volume= 2 | pages = 93–94 }}</ref> It was said the dead arose from the underworld during the span of the festival. Along with the souls of the dead, the [[Keres]] also wandered through the city and had to be banished when the festival ended.<ref name=":4">(Photius, Lexicon, s.v. "Thyraze Kares.")

To the doors, Kares, it is no longer Anthestria": some authorities contented that this is what is said to the crowd of Karian slaves, since at the Anthestria they join in the feast and do not do any work. Therefore, when the festival is over, they send them back out to work with the words, "To the doors, Keres, it is no longer Anthestria." since the souls [keres] wander about through the city at the Anthestria.</ref> On the first day, Wine vats were opened.<ref>(Plutarch, Table-talk, 655e.)

At Athens they inaugurate the new wine on the eleventh of the month, and they call the day pithoigia.</ref> The wine was opened and mixed in honour of the god.<ref>(Phanodemus, in Athenaeus, Deipnosophists XI. 456a; frag 12in FGrH 325.)

At the temple of Dionysus in Limnai ["The Marshes"] the Athenians bring the new wine from the jars age mix it in honour of the god and then they drink it themselves. Because of this custom Dionysus is called Limnaios, because the wine was mixed with water and then for the first time drunk diluted.</ref> The rooms and the drinking vessels were adorned with flowers along with children over three years of age.<ref name=":0" />

On the second day, a solemn ritual for Dionysus occurred along with drinking. People dressed up, sometimes as members of Dionysus's entourage, and visited others. Choes was also the occasion of a solemn and secret ceremony in one of the sanctuaries of Dionysus in the Lenaeum, which was closed for the rest of the year. The basilissa (or basilinna), wife of the basileus, underwent a symbolic ceremonial marriage to the god, possibly representing a [[Hieros gamos]]. The basilissa was assisted by fourteen Athenian matrons (called [[Gerarai]]) who were chosen by the basileus and sworn to secrecy.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Rice, David G. Stambaugh, John E.|title=Sources for the Study of Greek Religion Corrected Edition.|date=2014|publisher=Society of Biblical Literature|isbn=978-1-62837-067-6|oclc=893453849}}</ref>

The last day was dedicated to the dead. Offerings were also offered to [[Hermes]], due to his connection to the underworld. It was considered a day of merrymaking.<ref name=":0" /> Some poured [[Libation]]s on the tombs of deceased relatives. Chythroi ended with a ritual cry intended to order the souls of the dead to return to the underworld.<ref name=":5" /> [[Keres]] were also banished from the festival on the last day.<ref name=":4" />

To protect themselves from evil, people chewed leaves of whitethorn and smeared their doors with tar to protect themselves. The festival also allowed servants and slaves to participate in the festivities.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":4" />

===Bacchic Mysteries===
{{main|Dionysian Mysteries|Orphism (religion)}}
[[File:Bacchic_procession,_Colosseum.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Marble relief of a Maenad and two satyrs in a Bacchic procession. AD 100, [[British Museum]], [[London]].]]
The central religious cult of Dionysus is known as the Bacchic or [[Dionysian Mysteries]]. The exact origin of this religion is unknown, though [[Orpheus]] was said to have invented the mysteries of Dionysus.<ref name="Apollodorus1.3.2">Pseudo-[[Apollodorus of Athens|Apollodorus]], ''[[Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus)|Bibliotheca]]'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Apollod.+1.3.2 ''Library and Epitome'', 1.3.2]. "Orpheus also invented the mysteries of Dionysus, and having been torn in pieces by the Maenads he is buried in Pieria."</ref> Evidence suggests that many sources and rituals typically considered to be part of the similar [[Orphism (religion)|Orphic Mysteries]] actually belong to Dionysian mysteries.<ref name=iconography/> Some scholars have suggested that, additionally, there is no difference between the Dionysian mysteries and the mysteries of [[Persephone]], but that these were all facets of the same mystery religion, and that Dionysus and Persephone both had important roles in it.<ref name=iconography/><ref>Dickie, M.W. 1995. The Dionysiac Mysteries. In Pella, ZPE 109, 81–86.</ref> Previously considered to have been a primarily rural and fringe part of Greek religion, the major urban center of [[Athens]] played a major role in the development and spread of the Bacchic mysteries.<ref name=iconography/>

The Bacchic mysteries served an important role in creating ritual traditions for transitions in people's lives; originally primarily for men and male sexuality, but later also created space for ritualizing women's changing roles and celebrating changes of status in a woman's life. This was often symbolized by a meeting with the gods who rule over death and change, such as [[Hades]] and Persephone, but also with Dionysus' mother Semele, who probably served a role related to initiation into the mysteries.<ref name=iconography/>

The religion of Dionysus often included rituals involving the sacrifice of goats or bulls, and at least some participants and dancers wore wooden masks associated with the god. In some instances, records show the god participating in the ritual via a masked and clothed pillar, pole, or tree, while his worshipers eat bread and drink wine. The significance of masks and goats to the worship of Dionysus seems to date back to the earliest days of his worship, and these symbols have been found together at a [[Minoan]] tomb near [[Phaistos]] in Crete.<ref name=Kerenyi/>

===Eleusinian Mysteries===
[[File:Hans von Aachen - Bacchus, Ceres and Amor (?) - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|right|''Bacchus, Ceres and Amor'', (1595–1605). Oil on canvas by [[Hans von Aachen]].]]
[[File:Naukratis Dionysus.jpg|thumb|right|Roman marble relief (first century AD) from [[Naukratis]] showing the Greek god Dionysus, snake-bodied and wearing an [[Egypt]]ian crown.]]

As early as the fifth century BC, Dionysus became identified with [[Iacchus]], a minor deity from the tradition of the [[Eleusinian Mysteries]].<ref>Jiménez San Cristóbal 2012, [https://books.google.com/books?id=zmgXMbOtX9cC&pg=PA125 p. 125]; Bowie, A. M., p. 232; Harrison, [https://archive.org/details/prolegomenatostu00harr/page/540 pp. 540–542].</ref> This association may have arisen because of the homophony of the names Iacchus and Bacchus. Two [[black-figure]] [[Lekythos|lekythoi]] (c. 500 BC), possibly represent the earliest evidence for such an association. The nearly-identical vases, one in Berlin,<ref>[[Antikensammlung Berlin]] F1961 ([http://www.beazley.ox.ac.uk/record/1C4DA6AF-C361-4BE2-BD81-0CCBE7B2C1EA Beazley Archive 302354]).</ref> the other in Rome,<ref>[[National Etruscan Museum]] 42884, ([http://www.beazley.ox.ac.uk/record/C884C067-90A7-4F97-9E31-08D54C75039A Beazley Archive 9017720]).</ref> depict Dionysus, along with the inscription ''IAKXNE'', a possible miswriting of ''IAKXE''.<ref>Versnel, pp. 32 ff.; Bowie, A. M., p. 232.</ref> More early evidence can be found in the works of the fifth-century BC Athenian tragedians [[Sophocles]] and [[Euripides]].<ref>Jiménez San Cristóbal 2012, [https://books.google.com/books?id=zmgXMbOtX9cC&pg=PA127 p. 127]; Graf 2005, "Iacchus".</ref> In [[Sophocles]]' ''[[Antigone (Sophocles)|Antigone]]'' (c. 441 BC), an ode to Dionysus begins by addressing Dionysus as the "God of many names" (''πολυώνυμε''), who rules over the glens of Demeter's Eleusis, and ends by identifying him with "Iacchus the Giver", who leads "the chorus of the stars whose breath is fire" and whose "attendant Thyiads" dance in "night-long frenzy".<ref>Jiménez San Cristóbal 2013, [https://books.google.com/books?id=FmTnBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA279 p. 279], Bowie, A. M., pp. 232–233; Sophocles, ''Antigone'' [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0011.tlg002.perseus-eng1:1115-1125 1115–1125], [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0011.tlg002.perseus-eng1:1146-1154 1146–1154]; Versnel, pp. 23–24. Jebb, in his [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0023%3Atext%3Dcomm%3Acommline%3D1146 note to line 1146 '''χοράγ᾽ ἄστρων'''], understands the Sophoclean use of the name "Iacchus" as specifically denoting the Eleusinian Dionysus.</ref> And in a fragment from a lost play, Sophocles describes [[Nysa (mythology)|Nysa]], Dionysus' traditional place of nurture: "From here I caught sight of Nysa, haunt of Bacchus, famed among mortals, which Iacchus of the bull's horns counts as his beloved nurse".<ref>Jiménez San Cristóbal 2013, [https://books.google.com/books?id=FmTnBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA279 pp. 279–280]; Bowie, A. M., p. 233; [[Sophocles]], fragment 959 Radt (Lloyd-Jones, [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/sophocles-fragments_not_assignable_any_play/1996/pb_LCL483.415.xml pp. 414, 415]).</ref> In [[Euripides]]' ''[[The Bacchae|Bacchae]]'' (c. 405 BC), a messenger, describing the Bacchic revelries on mount [[Cithaeron]], associates Iacchus with [[Bromius]], another of the names of Dionysus, saying, they "began to wave the thyrsos&nbsp;... calling on Iacchus, the son of Zeus, Bromius, with united voice."<ref>Encinas Reguero, p. 350; Jiménez San Cristóbal 2013, [https://books.google.com/books?id=FmTnBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA282 p. 282, with n. 41]; Bowie, A. M., p. 233; [[Euripides]], ''[[The Bacchae|Bacchae]]'' [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0006.tlg017.perseus-eng1:677-727 725]. Jiménez San Cristóbal also sees possible associations between Iacchus and Dionysus in Euripides: ''[[Ion (play)|Ion]]'' [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0006.tlg010.perseus-eng1:1074-1089 1074–1086], ''[[The Trojan Women]]'' [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0006.tlg011.perseus-eng1:1226-1231 1230], ''[[Cyclops (play)|Cyclops]]'' [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0006.tlg001.perseus-eng1:63-81 68–71], and fr. 586 Kannicht (''apud'' [[Strabo]], [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0099.tlg001.perseus-eng1:10.3.13 10.3.13]) = fr. 586 Nauck (Collard and Cropp, [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/euripides-dramatic_fragments/2008/pb_LCL506.57.xml pp. 56, 57]).</ref>

An inscription found on a stone [[stele]] (c. 340 BC), found at [[Delphi]], contains a paean to Dionysus, which describes his travels.<ref>Bowie, E. L., [https://books.google.com/books?id=7MVWCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA101 pp. 101–110]; Fantuzzi, pp. [https://books.google.com/books?id=K73Tt_X1YaoC&pg=PA189 189], [https://books.google.com/books?id=K73Tt_X1YaoC&pg=PA190 190], [https://books.google.com/books?id=K73Tt_X1YaoC&pg=PA191 191]; PHI Greek Inscriptions, [http://epigraphy.packhum.org/text/237910 BCH 19 (1895) 393].</ref> From [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]], where he was born, he first went to [[Delphi]] where he displayed his "starry body", and with "Delphian girls" took his "place on the folds of Parnassus",<ref>21–24, Bowie, E. L., [https://books.google.com/books?id=7MVWCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA101 pp. 101–102].</ref> then next to [[Eleusis]], where he is called "Iacchus":

:And in your hand brandishing your night-
:lighting flame, with god-possessed frenzy
:you went to the vales of Eleusis
:...
:where the whole people of Hellas'
:land, alongside your own native witnesses
:of the holy mysteries, calls upon you
:as Iacchus: for mortals from their pains
:you have opened a haven without toils.<ref>27–35, Bowie, E. L., [https://books.google.com/books?id=7MVWCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA102 p. 102].</ref>

[[Strabo]], says that Greeks "give the name 'Iacchus' not only to Dionysus but also to the leader-in-chief of the mysteries".<ref>[[Strabo]], [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0099.tlg001.perseus-eng1:10.3.10 10.3.10].</ref> In particular, Iacchus was identified with the [[Orphism (religion)|Orphic]] Dionysus, who was a son of Persephone.<ref>Parker 2005, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ff51JeXhHXUC&pg=PA358 p. 358]; Grimal, s.v. Iacchus, p. 224; Tripp, s.v. Iacchus, p. 313; Smith 1870, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0104%3Aalphabetic+letter%3DI%3Aentry+group%3D1%3Aentry%3Diacchus-bio-1 s.v. Iacchus].</ref> Sophocles mentions "Iacchus of the bull's horns", and according to the first-century BC historian [[Diodorus Siculus]], it was this older Dionysus who was represented in paintings and sculptures with horns, because he "excelled in sagacity and was the first to attempt the yoking of oxen and by their aid to effect the sowing of the seed".<ref>Jiménez San Cristóbal 2013, [https://books.google.com/books?id=FmTnBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA279 pp. 279–280]; [[Diodorus Siculus]], [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/4A*.html#4 4.4.2], see also [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/3E*.html#64 3.64.1–2].</ref> [[Arrian]], the second-century Greek historian, wrote that it was to this Dionysus, the son of Zeus and Persephone, "not the Theban Dionysus, that the mystic chant 'Iacchus' is sung".<ref>[[Arrian]], ''[[Anabasis of Alexander]]'' [http://www.loebclassics.com/view/arrian-anabasis_alexander/1976/pb_LCL236.181.xml?rskey=NlzLtT&result=1&mainRsKey=nBdH9M 2.16.3]</ref> The second-century poet [[Lucian]] also referred to the "dismemberment of Iacchus".<ref>[[Lucian]], ''De Saltatione'' ("The Dance") 39 ([https://archive.org/stream/lucianhar05luciuoft#page/250/mode/2up Harmon, pp. 250, 251]).</ref>

The fourth- or fifth-century poet [[Nonnus]] associated the name Iacchus with the "third" Dionysus. He described the Athenian celebrations given to the first Dionysus [[Zagreus]], son of [[Persephone]], the second Dionysus [[Bromios]], son of [[Semele]], and the third Dionysus Iacchus:
:They [the Athenians] honoured him as a god next after the son of Persephone, and after Semele's son; they established sacrifices for Dionysos late born and Dionysos first born, and third they chanted a new hymn for Iacchos. In these three celebrations Athens held high revel; in the dance lately made, the Athenians beat the step in honour of Zagreus and Bromios and Iacchos all together.<ref>[[Nonnus]], ''[[Dionysiaca]]'' [https://archive.org/stream/dionysiaca03nonnuoft#page/492/mode/2up 48.962–968].</ref>

By some accounts, Iacchus was the husband of Demeter.<ref>Hard, [https://books.google.com/books?id=r1Y3xZWVlnIC&pg=PA134 p. 134]; Grimal, s.v. Iacchus, p. 224; Tripp, s.v. Iacchus, p. 313; Rose, ''Oxford Classical Dictionary'' s.v. Iacchus; scholiast on [[Aristophanes]], ''[[The Frogs|Frogs]]'' 324 (Rutherford 1896, [https://archive.org/stream/scholiaaristopha01ruthuoft#page/316/mode/2up p. 316]).</ref> Several other sources identify Iacchus as Demeter's son.<ref>Marcovich, [https://books.google.com/books?id=nh8VAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA23 p. 23]; Parker 2005, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ff51JeXhHXUC&pg=PA358 p. 358]; Graf 1974, [https://books.google.com/books?id=PDoL_7pzJhEC&pg=PA198 p. 198].</ref> The earliest such source, a fourth-century BC vase fragment at Oxford, shows Demeter holding the child Dionysus on her lap.<ref>Marcovich, [https://books.google.com/books?id=nh8VAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA23 p. 23]; Bianchi, [https://books.google.com/books?id=PxOeT0NWzwoC&pg=PA18 p. 18]; Graf 1974, [https://books.google.com/books?id=PDoL_7pzJhEC&pg=PA198 p. 198]; [[Ashmolean Museum]] at Oxford, Inv. 1956-355.</ref> By the first-century BC, Demeter suckling Iacchus had become such a common motif, that the Latin poet [[Lucretius]] could use it as an apparently recognizable example of a lover's euphemism.<ref>Parker 2005, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ff51JeXhHXUC&pg=PA358 p. 358 n. 139]; [[Lucretius]], [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0550.phi001.perseus-eng1:4.1141-4.1191 4.1168–1169]. [[Arnobius]], ''Adversus Gentes'' [https://archive.org/stream/thesevenbooksofa00arnouoft#page/n183/mode/2up 3.10 (p. 157)] referring to the Lucretius verse, lists "the full-breasted Cerses nursing Iaccus" as a sight "the mind longs" to see. Compare with [[Photius]], [https://dcthree.github.io/photios-images/#nanogallery/photios/pages/02_00215_0 s.v. Ἴακχος] and [[Suda]], [http://www.stoa.org/sol-bin/search.pl?login=guest&enlogin=guest&db=REAL&field=adlerhw_gr&searchstr=iota,16 s.v. Ἴακχος (iota,16)], which identify Iacchus with ''Διόνυσος ἐπὶ τῷ μαστῷ'' ('Dionysus at the breast').</ref> A scholiast on the second-century AD [[Aelius Aristides|Aristides]], explicitly names Demeter as Iacchus' mother.<ref>Parker 2005, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ff51JeXhHXUC&pg=PA358 p. 358 n. 139]; scholiast on [[Aelius Aristides|Aristides]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=6N1EAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA648 Vol. 3, p. 648 213, 18 Dindorf].</ref>

===Orphism===
[[File:Satyr Bacchus Petit Palais ADUT00240.jpg|thumb|right|[[Satyr]] giving a [[grapevine]] to Bacchus as a child; [[cameo glass]], first half of the first century AD; from Italy]]
In the [[Orphism (religion)|Orphic]] tradition, the "first Dionysus" was the son of [[Zeus]] and [[Persephone]], and was dismembered by the [[Titans]] before being reborn.<ref>Gantz, p. 118; Hard, [https://books.google.com/books?id=r1Y3xZWVlnIC&pg=PA35 p. 35]; Grimal, s.v. Zagreus, p. 456.</ref> Dionysus was the patron god of the Orphics, who they connected to death and immortality, and he symbolized the one who guides the process of [[reincarnation]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Norman C.|last=McClelland|title=Encyclopedia of Reincarnation and Karma|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S_Leq4U5ihkC |year=2010|publisher=McFarland|isbn=978-0-7864-5675-8|pages=76–77}}</ref>

This Orphic Dionysus is sometimes referred to with the alternate name [[Zagreus]] ({{langx|grc|Ζαγρεύς}}). The earliest mentions of this name in literature describe him as a partner of [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]] and call him the highest god. [[Aeschylus]] linked Zagreus with Hades, as either Hades' son or Hades himself.<ref>Sommerstein, [http://www.loebclassics.com/view/aeschylus-attributed_fragments/2009/pb_LCL505.237.xml?result=1&rskey=f0foz8 p. 237 n. 1]; Gantz, p. 118; Smyth, [https://archive.org/stream/aeschyluswitheng02aescuoft#page/458/mode/2up p. 459].</ref> Noting "Hades' identity as Zeus' ''katachthonios'' alter ego", [[Timothy Gantz]] thought it likely that Zagreus, originally, perhaps, the son of Hades and Persephone, later merged with the Orphic Dionysus, the son of Zeus and Persephone.<ref>Gantz, p. 118.</ref> However, no known Orphic sources use the name "Zagreus" to refer to the Orphic Dionysus. It is possible that the association between the two was known by the third century BC, when the poet [[Callimachus]] may have written about it in a now-lost source.<ref>Gantz, pp. 118–119; West 1983, pp. 152–154; Linforth, [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015008294699;view=1up;seq=335 pp. 309–311].</ref> Callimachus, as well as his contemporary [[Euphorion of Chalcis|Euphorion]], told the story of the dismemberment of the infant Dionysus,<ref>[[Callimachus]], fr. 643 Pfeiffer (= [[Euphorion of Chalcis|Euphorion]], [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/euphorion_chalcis-poetic_fragments/2010/pb_LCL508.227.xml fr. 14 Lightfoot]); Gantz, p. 118–119; West 1983, p. 151; Linforth, [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015008294699;view=1up;seq=335 pp. 309–310].</ref> and [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] sources quote Callimachus as referring to the birth of a "Dionysos Zagreus", explaining that Zagreus was the poets' name for the ''[[chthonic]]'' aspect of Dionysus.<ref>[[Callimachus]], fr. 43.117 Pfeiffer (= [https://books.google.com/books?id=a5YdwJJatoAC&pg=PA190 fr. 43b.34 Harder]); Harder, p. 368; Gantz, p. 118; West 1983, pp. 152–153; Linforth, [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015008294699;view=1up;seq=336 p. 310].</ref> The earliest definitive reference to the belief that Zagreus is another name for the Orphic Dionysus is found in the late first century writings of [[Plutarch]].<ref>Linforth, pp. [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015008294699;view=1up;seq=337 311], [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015008294699;view=1up;seq=343 317–318]; [[Plutarch]], ''The E at Delphi'' [http://www.loebclassics.com/view/plutarch-moralia_e_delphi/1936/pb_LCL306.223.xml?rskey=IgdtC4&result=1&mainRsKey=ndQO1U 389 A].</ref> The fifth century Greek poet [[Nonnus]]' ''[[Dionysiaca]]'' tells the story of this Orphic Dionysus, in which Nonnus calls him the "older Dionysos &nbsp;... illfated Zagreus",<ref>[[Nonnus]], ''[[Dionysiaca]]'' [https://archive.org/stream/dionysiaca01nonnuoft#page/208/mode/2up 5.564–565].</ref> "Zagreus the horned baby",<ref>[[Nonnus]], ''[[Dionysiaca]]'' [https://archive.org/stream/dionysiaca01nonnuoft#page/224/mode/2up 6.165].</ref> "Zagreus, the first Dionysos",<ref>[[Nonnus]], ''[[Dionysiaca]]'' [https://archive.org/stream/dionysiaca01nonnuoft#page/348/mode/2up 10.294].</ref> "Zagreus the ancient Dionysos",<ref>[[Nonnus]], ''[[Dionysiaca]]'' [https://archive.org/stream/dionysiaca03nonnuoft#page/128/mode/2up 39.72].</ref> and "Dionysos Zagreus".<ref>[[Nonnus]], ''[[Dionysiaca]]'' [https://archive.org/stream/dionysiaca03nonnuoft#page/314/mode/2up 44.255].</ref>