Editing Dharma (section)

==Hinduism==
{{Hinduism small}}
''Dharma'' is an organising principle in [[Hinduism]] that applies to human beings in solitude, in their interaction with human beings and nature, as well as between inanimate objects, to all of [[cosmos]] and its parts.{{sfn|Rosen|2006|pp=34–45}} It refers to the order and customs which make life and universe possible, and includes behaviours, rituals, rules that govern society, and ethics.<ref name="ODWR-Dharma" />{{refn|group=note|name="ODWR-Dharma"}} [[Hindus|Hindu]] ''dharma'' includes the religious duties, moral rights and duties of each individual, as well as behaviours that enable social order, right conduct, and those that are virtuous.<ref>"Dharma", ''The Columbia Encyclopedia'', 6th ed. (2013), Columbia University Press, Gale, {{ISBN|978-0-7876-5015-5}}</ref> ''Dharma'', according to Van Buitenen,{{sfn|Van Buitenen|1957}} is that which all existing beings must accept and respect to sustain harmony and order in the world. It is neither the act nor the result, but the natural laws that guide the act and create the result to prevent chaos in the world. It is innate characteristic, that makes the being what it is. It is, claims Van Buitenen, the pursuit and execution of one's nature and true calling, thus playing one's role in cosmic concert. In Hinduism, it is the ''dharma'' of the bee to make honey, of cow to give milk, of sun to radiate sunshine, of river to flow.{{sfn|Van Buitenen|1957}} In terms of humanity, ''dharma'' is the need for, the effect of and essence of service and interconnectedness of all life.{{sfn|Rosen|2006|pp=34–45}}{{sfn|Hacker|2006}} This includes duties, rights, [[Law|laws]], conduct, [[Virtue|virtues]] and "right way of living".<ref name=srdtce>see:
*"Dharma", ''The Columbia Encyclopedia'', 6th ed. (2013), Columbia University Press, Gale, {{ISBN|978-0-7876-5015-5}};
*{{harvp|Rosen|2006|loc="Chapter 3"}}.</ref>

In its true essence, ''dharma'' means for a Hindu to "expand the mind". Furthermore, it represents the direct connection between the individual and the societal phenomena that bind the society together. In the way societal phenomena affect the conscience of the individual, similarly may the actions of an individual alter the course of the society, for better or for worse. This has been subtly echoed by the credo धर्मो धारयति प्रजा: meaning ''dharma'' is that which holds and provides support to the social construct.{{Citation needed|date=April 2024}}

In Hinduism, ''dharma'' generally includes various aspects:
* [[Sanātana Dharma]], the eternal and unchanging principals of ''dharma''.<ref>"[https://www.britannica.com/topic/sanatana-dharma Sanatana dharma]". Encyclopædia Britannica, 18 Jun. 2009. Accessed 14 September 2021.</ref>
* Varṇ āśramā dharma, one's duty at specific [[Ashrama_(stage)|stages of life]] or inherent duties.{{sfn|Conlon|1994|p=50}} 
* [[Svadharma]], one's own individual or personal duty.{{sfn|Fritzman|2015|p=326}}{{sfn|Grimes|1996|p=112}} 
* Āpad dharma, ''dharma'' prescribed at the time of adversities.{{sfn|Grimes|1996|p=112}} 
* Sadharana dharma, moral duties irrespective of the [[Ashrama_(stage)|stages of life]].{{sfn|Kumar|Choudhury|2021|p=8}}{{refn|group=note|The common duties of ''Sadharana-dharma'' is based on the idea that, individuals ([[Jiva]]) are born with a number of debts, hence through common moral duties prescribed in the ''Sadharana dharma'' would help to repay one's debts to the humanity.{{sfn|Grimes|1996|p=12}}}} 
* [[Yuga dharma]], ''dharma'' which is valid for a [[yuga]], an epoch or age as established by Hindu tradition and thus may change at the conclusion of its time.<ref name=":0"/>{{sfn|Grimes|1996|p=112-113}}

===In Vedas and Upanishads===
The [[#History|history section]] of this article discusses the development of ''dharma'' concept in [[Vedas]]. This development continued in the [[Upanishads]] and later ancient scripts of Hinduism. In Upanishads, the concept of ''dharma'' continues as universal principle of law, order, harmony, and truth. It acts as the regulatory moral principle of the Universe. It is explained as law of righteousness and equated to ''[[satya]]'' ({{langx|sa|सत्यं}}, truth),{{sfn|Horsch|2004}}<ref name=chjo/> in hymn 1.4.14 of [[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad|Brhadaranyaka Upanishad]], as follows:

{{quote| 
Nothing is higher than dharma. The weak overcomes the stronger by dharma, as over a king. Truly that dharma is the Truth (''Satya''); Therefore, when a man speaks the Truth, they say, "He speaks the Dharma"; and if he speaks Dharma, they say, "He speaks the Truth!" For both are one.|[[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]]|1.4.xiv{{sfn|Horsch|2004}}<ref name=chjo>[[Charles Johnston (Theosophist)|Johnston, Charles]], ''The Mukhya Upanishads: Books of Hidden Wisdom, Kshetra'', {{ISBN|978-1-4959-4653-0}}, p. 481, for discussion: pp. 478–505.</ref>}}

=== Dharma and Mimamsa ===
''[[Mīmāṃsā|Mimamsa]]'', developed through commentaries on its foundational texts, particularly the ''[[Purva Mimamsa Sutras|Mimamsa Sutras]]'' attributed to [[Jaimini]], emphasizes "the desire to know dharma" as the central concern, defining dharma as what connects a person with the highest good, always yet to be realized. While some schools associate dharma with post-mortem existence, ''Mimamsakas'' focus on the continual renewal and realization of a ritual world through adherence to Vedic injunctions. They assert that the ultimate good is essentially inaccessible to perception and can only be understood through language, reflecting confidence in Vedic injunctions and the reality of language as a means of knowing.<ref>{{Citation |last=Arnold |first=Daniel |title=Kumārila |date=Summer 2024 |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |url= https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2024/entries/kumaarila/ |access-date=2024-04-11 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |editor2-last=Nodelman |editor2-first=Uri |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240708163510/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2024/entries/kumaarila/ |archive-date= 8 Jul 2024 }}</ref>

''Mimamsa'' addresses the delayed results of actions (like wealth or heaven) through the concept of apurva or adrsta, an unseen force that preserves the connection between actions and their outcomes. This ensures that Vedic sacrifices, though their results are delayed, are effective and reliable in guiding toward dharma.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Junankar |first=N. S. |date=1982 |title=The Mīmāṃsā Concept of Dharma |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23444178 |journal=Journal of Indian Philosophy |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=51–60 |doi=10.1007/BF00200183 |jstor=23444178 |issn=0022-1791}}</ref>

===In the Epics===
The Hindu religion and philosophy, claims [[Daniel H. H. Ingalls, Sr.|Daniel Ingalls]], places major emphasis on individual practical morality. In the Sanskrit epics, this concern is omnipresent.{{sfn|Ingalls|1957|p=43}} In Hindu Epics, the good, morally upright, law-abiding king is referred to as "dharmaraja".<ref>Fitzgerald, James L. (2004) [https://books.google.com/books?id=p9SzCuLIlQ0C&pg=PA124 The Mahābhārata: Vol. 7, Book 11: The Book of Women; Book 12: The Book of Peace, Part 1]. University of Chicago Press. {{ISBN|9780226252506}}. p. 124. {{OCLC|59170383}}</ref>

''Dharma'' is at the centre of all major events in the life of Dasharatha, [[Rama]], [[Sita]], and [[Lakshmana|Lakshman]] in Ramayana. In the Ramayana, Dasharatha upholds his dharma by honoring a promise to Kaikeyi, resulting in his beloved son Rama's exile, even though it brings him immense personal suffering.{{sfn|Ingalls|1957|pp=41–48}} 

In the [[Mahabharata]]'', dharma'' is central, and it is presented through symbolism and metaphors. Near the end of the epic, Yama referred to as ''dharma'' in the text, is portrayed as taking the form of a [[dog]] to test the compassion of [[Yudhishthira]], who is told he may not enter paradise with such an animal. Yudhishthira refuses to abandon his companion, for which he is then praised by ''dharma''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m17/m17003.htm |title=The Mahabharata, Book 17: Mahaprasthanika Parva: Section 3 |via=Internet Sacred Text Archive |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240113173402/https://sacred-texts.com/hin/m17/m17003.htm |archive-date= Jan 13, 2024 }}</ref> The value and appeal of the Mahabharata, according to Ingalls, is not as much in its complex and rushed presentation of metaphysics in the 12th book.{{sfn|Ingalls|1957|pp=41–48}} Indian metaphysics, he argues, is more eloquently presented in other Sanskrit scriptures. Instead, the appeal of Mahabharata, like [[Ramayana]], lies in its presentation of a series of moral problems and life situations, where there are usually three answers:{{sfn|Ingalls|1957|pp=41–48}} one answer is of [[Bhima]], which represents brute force, an individual angle representing materialism, egoism, and self; the second answer is of [[Yudhishthira]], which appeals to piety, [[Hindu deities|deities]], social virtue, and tradition; the third answer is of introspective [[Arjuna]], which falls between the two extremes, and who, claims Ingalls, symbolically reveals the finest moral qualities of man. The Epics of Hinduism are a symbolic treatise about life, virtues, customs, morals, ethics, law, and other aspects of ''dharma''.<ref>There is considerable amount of literature on dharma-related discussion in Hindu Epics: of Egoism versus Altruism, Individualism versus Social Virtues and Tradition; for examples, see:
* Meyer, Johann Jakob (1989), [https://books.google.com/books?id=izFNswlJ9LMC&pg=PA92 Sexual life in ancient India], {{ISBN|81-208-0638-7}}, Motilal Banarsidass, pp. 92–93; Quote – "In Indian literature, especially in Mahabharata over and over again is heard the energetic cry – Each is alone. None belongs to anyone else, we are all but strangers to strangers; (...), none knows the other, the self belongs only to self. Man is born alone, alone he lives, alone he dies, alone he tastes the fruit of his deeds and his ways, it is only his work that bears him company. (...) Our body and spiritual organism is ever changing; what belongs, then, to us? (...) Thus, too, there is really no teacher or leader for anyone, each is his own Guru, and must go along the road to happiness alone. Only the self is the friend of man, only the self is the foe of man; from others nothing comes to him. Therefore, what must be done is to honor, to assert one's self..."; Quote – "(in parts of the epic), the most thoroughgoing egoism and individualism is stressed..."
* Piper, Raymond F. (1954), "In Support of Altruism in Hinduism", ''Journal of Bible and Religion'', Vol. 22, No. 3 (Jul., 1954), pp. 178–183
* Ganeri, J. (2010), A Return to the Self: Indians and Greeks on Life as Art and Philosophical Therapy, Royal Institute of Philosophy supplement, 85(66), pp. 119–135.</ref> There is extensive discussion of ''dharma'' at the individual level in the Epics of Hinduism; for example, on free will versus destiny, when and why human beings believe in either, the strong and prosperous naturally uphold free will, while those facing grief or frustration naturally lean towards destiny.<ref>{{harvp|Ingalls|1957|pp=44–45}}; Quote – "(...)In the Epic, free will has the upper hand. Only when a man's effort is frustrated or when he is overcome with grief does he become a predestinarian (believer in destiny)."; Quote – "This association of success with the doctrine of free will or human effort (purusakara) was felt so clearly that among the ways of bringing about a king's downfall is given the following simple advice: 'Belittle free will to him, and emphasise destiny.{{'"}} (Mahabharata 12.106.20).</ref> The Epics of Hinduism illustrate various aspects of ''dharma'' with metaphors.<ref>[[Huston Smith|Smith, Huston]] (2009) The World Religions, HarperOne, {{ISBN|978-0-06-166018-4}}; For summary notes: [http://staff.gps.edu/montgomery/World%20Religions/Faiths/hinduism/Background%20to%20Hindu%20Literature.htm Background to Hindu Literature] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040922160422/http://staff.gps.edu/montgomery/World%20Religions/Faiths/hinduism/Background%20to%20Hindu%20Literature.htm |date=2004-09-22}}</ref>

===According to 4th-century Vatsyayana===
According to [[Klaus Klostermaier]], 4th-century CE Hindu scholar [[Vātsyāyana]] explained ''dharma'' by contrasting it with adharma.<ref name=klausk>Klostermaier, Klaus. Chapter 3: "Hindu dharma", A survey of Hinduism, SUNY Press, {{ISBN|0-88706-807-3}}.</ref> Vātsyāyana suggested that ''dharma'' is not merely in one's actions, but also in words one speaks or writes, and in thought. According to Vātsyāyana:<ref name=klausk/><ref>{{cite book |translator=Ganganatha Jha |title=Gautama's Nyāyasūtras, with Vātsyāyana-Bhāṣya |series=2 vols |publisher=Oriental Books |year=1939}}</ref>

# Adharma of body: hinsa (violence), steya (steal, theft), pratisiddha maithuna (sexual indulgence with someone other than one's partner)
# Dharma of body: dana (charity), paritrana (succor of the distressed) and paricarana (rendering service to others)
# Adharma from words one speaks or writes: mithya (falsehood), parusa (caustic talk), sucana (calumny) and asambaddha (absurd talk)
# Dharma from words one speaks or writes: satya (truth and facts), hitavacana (talking with good intention), priyavacana (gentle, kind talk), svadhyaya (self-study)
# Adharma of mind: paradroha (ill will to anyone), paradravyabhipsa (covetousness), nastikya (denial of the existence of morals and religiosity)
# Dharma of mind: daya (compassion), asprha (disinterestedness), and sraddha (faith in others)

===According to Patanjali Yoga===

In the [[Yoga Sutras of Patanjali|''Yoga Sutras'' of Patanjali]] the ''dharma'' is real; in the Vedanta it is unreal.{{sfn|Woods|1914|p={{page needed|date=December 2019}}}}
 
''Dharma'' is part of [[yoga]], suggests [[Patanjali]]; the elements of Hindu dharma are the attributes, qualities and aspects of yoga.{{sfn|Woods|1914|p={{page needed|date=December 2019}}}} Patanjali explained ''dharma'' in two categories: ''[[yamas]]'' (restraints) and ''[[niyama]]s'' (observances).<ref name=klausk/>

The five yamas, according to Patanjali, are: abstain from injury to all living creatures, abstain from falsehood (satya), abstain from unauthorised appropriation of things-of-value from another (acastrapurvaka), abstain from coveting or sexually cheating on your partner, and abstain from expecting or accepting gifts from others.{{sfn|Woods|1914|pp=178–180}} The five yama apply in action, speech and mind. In explaining yama, Patanjali clarifies that certain professions and situations may require qualification in conduct. For example, a fisherman must injure a fish, but he must attempt to do this with least trauma to fish and the fisherman must try to injure no other creature as he fishes.{{sfn|Woods|1914|pp=180–181}}

The five niyamas (observances) are cleanliness by eating pure food and removing impure thoughts (such as arrogance or jealousy or pride), contentment in one's means, meditation and silent reflection regardless of circumstances one faces, study and pursuit of historic knowledge, and devotion of all actions to the Supreme Teacher to achieve perfection of concentration.{{sfn|Woods|1914|pp=181–191}}

===Sources===
''Dharma'' is an empirical and experiential inquiry for every man and woman, according to some texts of Hinduism.{{sfn|Hacker|2006}}<ref>Kumarila Bhatta, Tantravarttika, Anandasramasamskrtagranthavalih, Vol. 97, pp. 204–205. {{in lang|sa}}; For an English Translation, see Ganganatha Jha (tr.) (1924), Bibliotheca Indica, Work No. 161, Vol. 1.</ref> For example, [[Apastamba|Apastamba Dharmasutra]] states:

{{quote| ''Dharma'' and ''Adharma'' do not go around saying, "That is us." Neither do gods, nor gandharvas, nor ancestors declare what is ''Dharma'' and what is ''Adharma''.| ''Apastamba Dharmasutra''{{sfn|Olivelle|1999|p={{pn|date=June 2024}}}}}}

In other texts, three sources and means to discover ''dharma'' in Hinduism are described. These, according to [[:de:Paul Hacker|Paul Hacker]], are:{{sfn|Hacker|2006|pp=487–489}} First, learning historical knowledge such as Vedas, Upanishads, the Epics and other [[Sanskrit literature]] with the help of one's teacher. Second, observing the behaviour and example of good people. The third source applies when neither one's education nor example exemplary conduct is known. In this case, "[[atmatusti]]" is the source of ''dharma'' in Hinduism, that is the good person reflects and follows what satisfies his heart, his own inner feeling, what he feels driven to.{{sfn|Hacker|2006|pp=487–489}}

===Dharma, life stages and social stratification===
{{main|Āśrama (stage)|Puruṣārtha|l1=Āśrama}}
Some texts of Hinduism outline ''dharma'' for society and at the individual level. Of these, the most cited one is ''[[Manusmriti]]'', which describes the four ''Varnas'', their rights and duties.{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2011|pp=215–227}} Most texts of Hinduism, however, discuss ''dharma'' with no mention of ''Varna'' ([[Caste system in India|caste]]).<ref>Thapar, R. (1995), The first millennium BC in northern India, Recent perspectives of early Indian history, 80–141.</ref> Other ''dharma'' texts and Smritis differ from Manusmriti on the nature and structure of Varnas.{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2011|pp=215–227}} Yet, other texts question the very existence of varna. [[Bhrigu]], in the Epics, for example, presents the theory that ''dharma'' does not require any varnas.<ref>Trautmann, Thomas R. (Jul 1964), "On the Translation of the Term Varna", ''Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient'', '''7'''(2) pp. 196–201.</ref> In practice, medieval India is widely believed to be a socially stratified society, with each social strata inheriting a profession and being endogamous. Varna was not absolute in Hindu dharma; individuals had the right to renounce and leave their Varna, as well as their [[Ashrama (stage)|asramas]] of life, in search of moksa.{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2011|pp=215–227}}<ref>see:
* {{harvp|Van Buitenen|1957|pp=38–39}}.
* {{harvp|Koller|1972|pp=131–144}}.</ref> While neither Manusmriti nor succeeding Smritis of Hinduism ever use the word varnadharma (that is, the ''dharma'' of varnas), or varnasramadharma (that is, the ''dharma'' of varnas and asramas), the scholarly commentary on Manusmriti use these words, and thus associate ''dharma'' with varna system of India.{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2011|pp=215–227}}<ref>Kane, P.V. (1962), History of Dharmasastra (Ancient and Medieval Religious and Civil Law in India), Volume 1, pp. 2–10.</ref> In 6th-century India, even Buddhist kings called themselves "protectors of varnasramadharma" – that is, ''dharma'' of varna and asramas of life.{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2011|pp=215–227}}<ref>Olivelle, P. (1993). ''The Asrama System: The history and hermeneutics of a religious institution'', New York: [[Oxford University Press]].</ref>

At the individual level, some texts of Hinduism outline [[Ashrama (stage)|four āśrama]]s, or stages of life as individual's ''dharma''. These are:{{sfn|Widgery|1930}} (1) [[Brahmacharya|brahmacārya]], the life of preparation as a student, (2) [[Grihastha|gṛhastha]], the life of the householder with family and other social roles, (3) [[Vanaprastha|vānprastha]] or aranyaka, the life of the forest-dweller, transitioning from worldly occupations to reflection and renunciation, and (4) [[sannyāsa]], the life of giving away all property, becoming a recluse and devotion to moksa, spiritual matters. Patrick Olivelle suggests that "ashramas represented life choices rather than sequential steps in the life of a single individual" and the vanaprastha stage was added before renunciation over time, thus forming life stages.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Glucklich |first=Ariel |title=The strides of Vishnu: Hindu culture in historical perspective |date=2008 |publisher=Oxford University press |isbn=978-0-19-531405-2 |location=Oxford |pages=87}}</ref>

The four stages of life complete the four human strivings in life, according to Hinduism.<ref name=jkkpwg/> ''Dharma'' enables the individual to satisfy the striving for stability and order, a life that is lawful and harmonious, the striving to do the right thing, be good, be virtuous, earn religious merit, be helpful to others, interact successfully with society. The other three strivings are [[Artha]] – the striving for means of life such as food, shelter, power, security, material wealth, and so forth; [[Kama]] – the striving for sex, desire, pleasure, love, emotional fulfilment, and so forth; and [[Moksa]] – the striving for spiritual meaning, liberation from life-rebirth cycle, self-realisation in this life, and so forth. The four stages are neither independent nor exclusionary in Hindu ''dharma''.<ref name=jkkpwg>see:
* {{harvp|Koller|1972|pp=131–144}}.
* {{harvp|Potter|1958|pp=49–63}}.
* {{harvp|Goodwin|1955|pp=321–344}}.</ref>

===Dharma and poverty===
''Dharma'' being necessary for individual and society, is dependent on poverty and prosperity in a society, according to Hindu dharma scriptures. For example, according to Adam Bowles,<ref name=adambowles>Bowles, Adam (2007), "Chapter 3", ''Dharma, Disorder, and the Political in Ancient India'', Brill's Indological Library (Book 28), {{ISBN|978-90-04-15815-3}}.</ref> [[Shatapatha Brahmana]] 11.1.6.24 links social prosperity and ''dharma'' through water. Waters come from rains, it claims; when rains are abundant there is prosperity on the earth, and this prosperity enables people to follow ''Dharma'' – moral and lawful life. In times of distress, of drought, of poverty, everything suffers including relations between human beings and the human ability to live according to ''dharma''.<ref name=adambowles/>

In Rajadharmaparvan 91.34-8, the relationship between poverty and ''dharma'' reaches a full circle. A land with less moral and lawful life suffers distress, and as distress rises it causes more immoral and unlawful life, which further increases distress.<ref name=adambowles/><ref>Derrett, J. D. M. (1959), "Bhu-bharana, bhu-palana, bhu-bhojana: an Indian conundrum", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, Vol. 22, pp. 108–123.</ref> Those in power must follow the raja dharma (that is, dharma of rulers), because this enables the society and the individual to follow dharma and achieve prosperity.<ref>[[Jan Gonda|Gonda, Jan]], "Ancient Indian Kingship from the Religious Point of View", ''Numen'', Vol. 3, Issue 1 (Jan., 1956), pp. 36–71.</ref>

===Dharma and law===
{{main|Hindu law}}
The notion of ''dharma'' as duty or propriety is found in India's ancient legal and religious texts. Common examples of such use are pitri dharma (meaning a person's duty as a father), putra dharma (a person's duty as a son), raj dharma (a person's duty as a king) and so forth.{{sfn|Kumar|Choudhury|2021}} In Hindu philosophy, justice, social harmony, and happiness requires that people live per ''dharma''. The [[Dharmashastra]] is a record of these guidelines and rules.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gächter |first=Othmar |title=Anthropos |journal=Anthropos Institute |year=1998}}</ref> The available evidence suggest India once had a large collection of ''dharma'' related literature (sutras, shastras); four of the sutras survive and these are now referred to as Dharmasutras.{{sfn|Olivelle|1999|p={{pn|date=June 2024}}}} Along with laws of Manu in Dharmasutras, exist parallel and different compendium of laws, such as the laws of Narada and other ancient scholars.<ref>Davis, Donald Jr. (September 2006) "A Realist View of Hindu Law", ''Ratio Juris''. Vol. 19, No. 3, pp. 287–313.</ref><ref>Lariviere, Richard W. (2003), The Naradasmrti, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass</ref> These different and conflicting law books are neither exclusive, nor do they supersede other sources of ''dharma'' in Hinduism. These Dharmasutras include instructions on education of the young, their rites of passage, customs, religious rites and rituals, marital rights and obligations, death and ancestral rites, laws and administration of justice, crimes, punishments, rules and types of evidence, duties of a king, as well as morality.{{sfn|Olivelle|1999|p={{pn|date=June 2024}}}}