Editing DDT (section)

===Use in the 1940s and 1950s===
[[File:1955. Ford tri-motor spraying DDT. Western spruce budworm control project. Powder River control unit, OR. (32213742634).jpg|thumb|An airplane spraying DDT over [[Baker County, Oregon]] as part of a [[spruce budworm]] control project, 1955]]
[[File:BosaDDTlog.jpg|thumb|DDT spray log in [[Bosa]] ([[Sardinia]])]]
DDT is the best-known of several [[chlorine]]-containing pesticides used in the 1940s and 1950s. During this time, the use of DDT was driven by protecting American soldiers from diseases in tropical areas. Both British and American scientists hoped to use it to control spread of [[malaria]], [[typhus]], [[dysentery]], and [[typhoid fever]] among overseas soldiers, especially considering that the [[pyrethrum]] was harder to access since it came mainly from Japan.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web |last=Sonnenberg |first=J. |date=2015-05-02 |title=Shoot to Kill: Control and Controversy in the History of DDT Science |url=https://www.stanford.edu/group/sjph/cgi-bin/sjphsite/shoot-to-kill-control-and-controversy-in-the-history-of-ddt-science/ |access-date=2022-04-09 |website=Stanford Journal of Public Health |language=en-US |archive-date=August 29, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220829055112/https://web.stanford.edu/group/sjph/cgi-bin/sjphsite/shoot-to-kill-control-and-controversy-in-the-history-of-ddt-science/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Deadly Dust: The Unhappy History Of DDT |url=https://www.americanheritage.com/deadly-dust-unhappy-history-ddt |access-date=2022-04-09 |website=AMERICAN HERITAGE |language=en |archive-date=April 9, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220409133455/https://www.americanheritage.com/deadly-dust-unhappy-history-ddt |url-status=live }}</ref> Due to the potency of DDT, it was not long before America's [[War Production Board]] placed it on military supply lists in 1942 and 1943 and encouraged its production for overseas use. Enthusiasm regarding DDT became obvious through the American government's advertising campaigns of posters depicting Americans fighting the [[Axis powers]] and insects and through media publications celebrating its military uses.<ref name="auto"/> In the [[Pacific Ocean|South Pacific]], it was sprayed aerially for malaria and dengue fever control with spectacular effects. While DDT's chemical and insecticidal properties were important factors in these victories, advances in application equipment coupled with competent organization and sufficient manpower were also crucial to the success of these programs.<ref name="Dunlap">{{cite book|first=Thomas|last=Dunlap|title=DDT: Scientists, Citizens, and Public Policy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PLL_AwAAQBAJ|year=2014|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-5385-4|access-date=August 29, 2022|archive-date=October 19, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019212022/https://books.google.com/books?id=PLL_AwAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 1945, DDT was made available to farmers as an agricultural insecticide<ref name=EHC009/> and played a role in the elimination of malaria in Europe and [[North America]].<ref name="Larson"/><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = de Zulueta J | title = The end of malaria in Europe: an eradication of the disease by control measures | journal = Parassitologia | volume = 40 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 245–246 | date = June 1998 | pmid = 9653750 }}</ref>'''<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/malaria/about/history/elimination_us.html |title=About Malaria – History – Elimination of Malaria in the United States (1947–1951) |website=CDC.gov |date=2019-01-28 |access-date=September 9, 2017 |archive-date=May 4, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120504183309/http://www.cdc.gov/malaria/about/history/elimination_us.html |url-status=live }}</ref>''' Despite concerns emerging in the scientific community, and lack of research, the FDA considered it safe up to 7 parts per million in food. There was a large economic incentive to push DDT into the market and sell it to farmers, governments, and individuals to control diseases and increase food production.<ref name="auto"/>

DDT was also a way for American influence to reach abroad through DDT-spraying campaigns. In the 1944 issue of [[Life magazine]] there was a feature regarding the Italian program showing pictures of American public health officials in uniforms spraying DDT on Italian families.<ref name="auto"/>

In 1955, the [[World Health Organization]] commenced a program to eradicate malaria in countries with low to moderate transmission rates worldwide, relying largely on DDT for mosquito control and rapid diagnosis and treatment to reduce transmission.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mendis K, Rietveld A, Warsame M, Bosman A, Greenwood B, Wernsdorfer WH | title = From malaria control to eradication: The WHO perspective | journal = Tropical Medicine & International Health | volume = 14 | issue = 7 | pages = 802–809 | date = July 2009 | pmid = 19497083 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-3156.2009.02287.x | s2cid = 31335358 | doi-access = free }}</ref> The program eliminated the disease in "North America, Europe, the former [[Soviet Union]]",<ref name="AmJTrop"/> and in "[[Taiwan]], much of the [[Caribbean]], the [[Balkans]], parts of northern Africa, the northern region of Australia, and a large swath of the South Pacific"<ref name="Gladwell">{{cite news |last=Gladwell |first=Malcolm |author-link=Malcolm Gladwell |name-list-style=vanc |title=The Mosquito Killer |newspaper=The New Yorker |date=July 2, 2001 |url=http://gladwell.com/the-mosquito-killer/ |access-date=August 20, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160416165010/http://gladwell.com/the-mosquito-killer/ |archive-date=April 16, 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and dramatically reduced mortality in [[Sri Lanka]] and India.<ref name=Gordon/>

However, failure to sustain the program, increasing mosquito tolerance to DDT, and increasing parasite tolerance led to a resurgence. In many areas early successes partially or completely reversed, and in some cases rates of transmission increased.<ref name=Chapin81>{{cite journal | vauthors = Chapin G, Wasserstrom R | title = Agricultural production and malaria resurgence in Central America and India | journal = Nature | volume = 293 | issue = 5829 | pages = 181–185 | year = 1981 | pmid = 7278974 | doi = 10.1038/293181a0 | bibcode = 1981Natur.293..181C | s2cid = 4346743 | doi-access = free }}</ref> The program succeeded in eliminating malaria only in areas with "high socio-economic status, well-organized healthcare systems, and relatively less intensive or seasonal malaria transmission".<ref name="AmJTrop">{{cite journal | vauthors = Sadasivaiah S, Tozan Y, Breman JG | title = Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) for indoor residual spraying in Africa: how can it be used for malaria control? | journal = The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene | volume = 77 | issue = 6 Suppl | pages = 249–263 | date = December 2007 | pmid = 18165500 | doi = 10.4269/ajtmh.2007.77.249 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

DDT was less effective in tropical regions due to the continuous life cycle of mosquitoes and poor infrastructure. It was applied in [[sub-Saharan Africa]] by various colonial states, but the 'global' WHO eradication program didn't include the region.<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = Palgrave Macmillan| isbn = 978-1-349-31322-8 | pages = 133–153| editor1-first = Virginia |editor1-last = Berridge| editor2-first=Martin| editor2-last=Gorsky | last = Clarke| first = Sabine| title = Environment, Health and History| chapter = Rethinking the Post-War Hegemony of DDT: Insecticides Research and the British Colonial Empire| location = London| date = 2012}}</ref> Mortality rates in that area never declined to the same dramatic extent, and now constitute the bulk of malarial deaths worldwide, especially following the disease's resurgence as a result of resistance to drug treatments and the spread of the deadly malarial variant caused by ''[[Plasmodium falciparum]]''. Eradication was abandoned in 1969 and attention instead focused on controlling and treating the disease. Spraying programs (especially using DDT) were curtailed due to concerns over safety and environmental effects, as well as problems in administrative, managerial and financial implementation.<ref name=Chapin81/> Efforts shifted from spraying to the use of [[Mosquito net|bednets]] impregnated with insecticides and other interventions.<ref name="AmJTrop"/><ref name=Rogan05>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rogan WJ, Chen A | title = Health risks and benefits of bis(4-chlorophenyl)-1,1,1-trichloroethane (DDT) | journal = Lancet | volume = 366 | issue = 9487 | pages = 763–773 | year = 2005 | pmid = 16125595 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67182-6 | s2cid = 3762435 | url = https://zenodo.org/record/1259797 | access-date = June 13, 2019 | archive-date = October 17, 2019 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191017205259/https://zenodo.org/record/1259797 | url-status = live }}</ref>