Editing Curtiss P-40 Warhawk (section)

===British Commonwealth===

====Deployment====
[[File:AWM 010926 tomahawk.jpg|thumb|Armourers working on a Tomahawk Mk.II from [[No. 3 Squadron RAAF]] in North Africa, 23 December 1941]]

In all, 18 [[Royal Air Force]] (RAF) squadrons, four [[Royal Canadian Air Force]] (RCAF), three [[South African Air Force]] (SAAF) and two [[Royal Australian Air Force]] (RAAF) squadrons serving with RAF formations, used P-40s.<ref>[http://www.rafweb.org/aircraftM-T.htm "Aircraft of the RAF (M – T)".] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130302045415/http://www.rafweb.org/aircraftM-T.htm |date=2 March 2013 }} ''rafweb.org'', 2007. Retrieved: 6 January 2008.</ref><ref>[http://www.rafweb.org/aircraftE-L.htm rafweb.org, 2007, "Aircraft of the RAF (E – L)".] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130302045814/http://www.rafweb.org/aircraftE-L.htm |date=2 March 2013 }} ''rafweb.org'', 2007. Retrieved: 6 January 2008.</ref> The first units to convert were [[Hawker Hurricane]] squadrons of the [[Desert Air Force]] (DAF), in early 1941. The first Tomahawks delivered came without armor, bulletproof windscreens or [[self-sealing fuel tank]]s, which were installed in subsequent shipments. Pilots used to British fighters sometimes found it difficult to adapt to the P-40's rear-folding landing gear, which was more prone to collapse than the lateral-folding landing gear of the Hurricane or [[Supermarine Spitfire]]. In contrast to the "three-point landing" commonly employed with British types, P-40 pilots were obliged to use a "wheels landing": a longer, low angle approach that touched down on the main wheels first.

Testing showed the aircraft did not have the performance needed for use in [[North-West Europe|Northwest Europe]] at high-altitude, due to the service ceiling limitation. Spitfires used in the theater operated at heights around {{convert|30000|ft|m|abbr=on}}, while the P-40's Allison engine, with its single-stage, low altitude rated supercharger, worked best at {{convert|15000|ft|m|abbr=on}} or lower. When the Tomahawk was used by Allied units based in the UK from February 1941, this limitation relegated the Tomahawk to low-level reconnaissance with [[RAF Army Cooperation Command]]
and only [[No. 403 Squadron RCAF]] was used in the fighter role for a mere 29 sorties, before being replaced by Spitfires. [[Air Ministry]] deemed the P-40 unsuitable for the theater. UK P-40 squadrons {{clarify|text=from mid-1942 re-equipped with aircraft such as Mustangs|reason=British employment of the Mustang was a complicated evolution of early contracts for P-40 performance-like, Allison-engined NA-73 and NA-83 series Mustangs I and II, similar P-51B series III (both via Lend-Lease and cash-and-carry), then phase-in of licensed Packard-produced Rolls-Royce Merlin-powered later series Mustangs (such as the P-51D), with latter debuts rolling all the way into the winter of 1943-1944|date=February 2017}}

[[File:TR 000978 kittyhawk.jpg|thumb|left|A Kittyhawk Mk III of [[No. 112 Squadron RAF]], [[taxiing]] at [[Medenine]], [[Tunisia]], in 1943. The ground crewman on the wing is directing the pilot, whose forward view is hindered by the aircraft's nose.]]
The Tomahawk was superseded in North Africa by the more powerful Kittyhawk ("D"-mark onwards) types from early 1942, though some Tomahawks remained in service until 1943. Kittyhawks included many improvements and were the DAF's air superiority fighter for the critical first few months of 1942, until "[[Tropics|tropicalised]]" [[Supermarine Spitfire]]s were available. DAF units received nearly 330 Packard V-1650 Merlin-powered P-40Fs, called Kittyhawk IIs, most of which went to the USAAF and the majority of the 700 "lightweight" L models, also powered by the Packard Merlin, in which the armament was reduced to four .50&nbsp;in (12.7&nbsp;mm) Brownings (Kittyhawk IIA). The DAF also received some 21 of the later P-40K and the majority of the 600 P-40Ms built; these were known as Kittyhawk IIIs. The "lightweight" P-40Ns (Kittyhawk IV) arrived from early 1943 and were used mostly as fighter-bombers.{{refn|Late P-40Fs and most Ks, Ls and the P-40Ms had lengthened rear fuselages; the F/Ls had no carburettor air scoop on the upper engine cowling.<ref>Green and Swanborough 1977, pp. 57–59.</ref>|group=N}} From July 1942 until mid-1943, elements of the US [[57th Operations Group|57th Fighter Group]] (57th FG) were attached to DAF P-40 units. The British government also donated 23 P-40s to the Soviet Union.

====Combat performance====
Tomahawks and Kittyhawks bore the brunt of ''Luftwaffe'' and ''[[Regia Aeronautica]]'' fighter attacks during the [[North African campaign]]. The P-40s were considered superior to the Hurricane, which they replaced as the primary fighter of the Desert Air Force.<ref name="P40Zero"/> 
{{Blockquote|quote=I would evade being shot at accurately by pulling so much [[g-force]]...that you could feel the blood leaving the head and coming down over your eyes... And you would fly like that for as long as you could, knowing that if anyone was trying to get on your tail they were going through the same bleary vision that you had and you might get away... I had deliberately decided that any deficiency the Kittyhawk had was offset by aggression. And I'd done a little bit of boxing – I beat much better opponents simply by going for [them]. And I decided to use that in the air. And it paid off.|source=[[Nicky Barr]], [[No. 3 Squadron RAAF|3 Sqn RAAF]]<ref>Hawkins, Belinda. [https://archive.today/20020817101037/http://www.abc.net.au/austory/transcripts/s513633.htm "The Quiet Man".] ''Australian Story'' via ''[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC-TV]]'', 2002. Retrieved: 8 November 2007.</ref>}}

The P-40 initially proved quite effective against Axis aircraft and contributed to a slight shift of advantage in the Allies' favor. The gradual replacement of Hurricanes by the Tomahawks and Kittyhawks led to the ''Luftwaffe'' accelerating retirement of the Bf 109E and introducing the newer Bf 109F; these were to be flown by the veteran pilots of elite ''Luftwaffe'' units, such as [[Jagdgeschwader 27|''Jagdgeschwader'' 27]] (JG27), in North Africa.<ref name="Scutts pp. 12–13"/> The P-40 was generally considered roughly equal or slightly superior to the Bf 109 at low altitude but inferior at high altitude, particularly against the Bf 109F.<ref>Pentland 1974, p. 22.</ref> Most air combat in North Africa took place well below {{cvt|16000|ft}}, negating much of the Bf 109's superiority. The P-40 usually had an advantage over the Bf 109 in turning, dive speed and structural strength, was roughly equal in firepower but was slightly inferior in speed and outclassed in rate of climb and operational ceiling.<ref name="P40Zero"/><ref name="Scutts pp. 12–13">Scutts 1994, pp. 12–13.</ref>

The P-40 was generally superior to early Italian fighter types, such as the [[Fiat G.50 Freccia]] and the [[Macchi C.200]]. Its performance against the [[Macchi C.202|Macchi C.202 ''Folgore'']] elicited varying opinions. Some observers consider the Macchi C.202 superior.<ref name="Gunston p. 226">Gunston 1984, p. 226.</ref> Caldwell, who scored victories against them in his P-40, felt that the ''Folgore'' was superior to the P-40 and the Bf 109 except that its armament of only two or four machine guns was inadequate.<ref>Ethell and Christy 1979, p. 51.</ref> Other observers considered the two equally matched or favored the ''Folgore'' in aerobatic performance, such as turning radius. The aviation historian [[Walter J. Boyne]] wrote that over Africa, the P-40 and the ''Folgore'' were "equivalent".<ref>Boyne 2002, p. 406.</ref><ref>Snedden 1997, p. 51.</ref><ref>Glancey 2006, p. 166.</ref> Against its lack of high-altitude performance, the P-40 was considered to be a stable gun platform and its rugged construction meant that it was able to operate from rough front line airstrips with a good rate of serviceability.<ref>Pentland 1974, pp. 8, 20.</ref>

The earliest victory claims by P-40 pilots include [[Vichy France|Vichy French]] aircraft, during the 1941 [[Syria-Lebanon campaign]], against [[Dewoitine D.520]]s, a type often considered to be the best French fighter of the war.<ref name = "nijbrw"/> The P-40 was deadly against Axis bombers in the theater, as well as against the [[Messerschmitt Bf 110|Bf 110]] twin-engine fighter. In June 1941, Caldwell, of [[No. 250 Squadron RAF|250 Squadron]] in [[Egypt]], flying as [[flying Officer]] (F/O) Jack Hamlyn's wingman, recorded in his log book that he was involved in the first air combat victory for the P-40. This was a [[CANT Z.1007]] bomber on 6 June.<ref name = "nijbrw"/> The claim was not officially recognized, as the crash of the CANT was not witnessed. The first official victory occurred on 8 June, when Hamlyn and [[Flight Sergeant]] (Flt Sgt) Tom Paxton destroyed a CANT Z.1007 from ''211<sup>a</sup> Squadriglia'' of the ''Regia Aeronautica'', over [[Alexandria]].<ref name = "lmnsbs"/> Several days later, the Tomahawk was in action over Syria with [[No. 3 Squadron RAAF]], which claimed 19 aerial victories over Vichy French aircraft during June and July 1941, for the loss of one P-40 (and one lost to ground fire).<ref>Brown 1983, p. 17.</ref>

[[File:P03372.011 kittybomber.jpg|thumb|left|North Africa, {{circa|1943}}. A P-40 "Kittybomber" of [[No. 450 Squadron RAAF]], loaded with six {{convert|250|lb|abbr=on}} bombs.]]
Some DAF units initially failed to use the P-40's strengths or used outdated defensive tactics such as the [[Lufbery circle]]. The superior climb rate of the Bf 109 enabled fast, swooping attacks, neutralizing the advantages offered by conventional defensive tactics. Various new formations were tried by Tomahawk units from 1941 to 1942, including "fluid pairs" (similar to the German ''rotte''); the [[Thach Weave]] (one or two "weavers") at the back of a squadron in formation and whole squadrons bobbing and weaving in loose formations.<ref name="Brown P. 26-29">Brown 1983, pp. 28–29.</ref> [[Werner Schröer]], who was credited with destroying 114 Allied aircraft in only 197 combat missions, referred to the latter formation as "bunches of grapes", because he found them so easy to pick off.<ref name="Brown P. 26-29"/> The leading German ''expert'' in North Africa, [[Hans-Joachim Marseille]], [[Confirmation and overclaiming of aerial victories|claimed]] as many as 101 P-40s during his career.<ref name="wwii_ace_stories_marseille">Ratuszynski, Wilhelm. [http://www.elknet.pl/acestory/aces.htm "Hans-Joachim Marseille: Desert Eagle".] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141103230105/http://www.elknet.pl/acestory/aces.htm |date=3 November 2014 }} ''World War II Ace Stories''. Retrieved: 8 March 1999.</ref>

From 26 May 1942, Kittyhawk units operated primarily as fighter-bomber units, giving rise to the nickname "Kittybomber".<ref>Brown 1983, pp. 257–258.</ref> As a result of this change in role and because DAF P-40 squadrons were frequently used in bomber escort and close air support missions, they suffered relatively high losses; many Desert Air Force P-40 pilots were caught flying low and slow by marauding Bf 109s.
{| class="wikitable floatright" 
|-
|+Victory claims and losses for three Tomahawk/Kittyhawk<br> squadrons of the [[Desert Air Force]], June 1941 – May 1943.
|-
! scope="col" style="width:200px;"| Unit
! scope="col" style="width:50px;"| [[No. 3 Squadron RAAF|3 Sqn RAAF]]
! scope="col" style="width:50px;"| [[No. 112 Squadron RAF|112 Sqn RAF]]
! scope="col" style="width:50px;"| [[No. 450 Squadron RAAF|450 Sqn RAAF]]{{efn|group=vicclaims|Began conversion to P-40s in December 1941; operational in February 1942.<ref>Brown 1983, p. 259.</ref>}}
|-
! scope="row" | Claims with Tomahawks
| 41 || 36 || –
|-
! scope="row" | Claims with Kittyhawks
| 74.5 || 82.5 || 49
|-
! scope="row" | Total P-40 claims
| 115.5 || 118.5 || 49
|-
! scope="row" | P-40 losses (total)
| 34 || 38 || 28
|-
| colspan="5"| {{notelist|group=vicclaims}}
|}
Caldwell believed that [[Operational Conversion Unit|Operational Training Unit]]s did not properly prepare pilots for air combat in the P-40 and as a commander, stressed the importance of training novice pilots properly.<ref>Alexander 2006, pp. 55–56.</ref>

Competent pilots who took advantage of the P-40's strengths were effective against the best of the ''Luftwaffe'' and ''Regia Aeronautica''.<ref name="P40Zero"/><ref name = "P40RAF"/> In August 1941, Caldwell was attacked by two Bf 109s, one of them piloted by German ace [[Werner Schröer]]. Although Caldwell was wounded three times and his Tomahawk was hit by more than 100 {{convert|7.92|mm|in|abbr=on}} bullets and five [[MG 151 cannon|20 mm cannon]] shells, Caldwell shot down Schröer's wingman and returned to base. Some sources also claim that in December 1941, Caldwell killed a prominent German ''Experte'', [[Erbo Graf von Kageneck|Erbo von Kageneck]] (69 kills), while flying a P-40.{{refn|Kageneck's brother, August Graf von Kageneck, who corresponded with Caldwell after the war, was among those who believed that Caldwell shot down Erbo.<ref>Alexander 2006, pp. 224–228.</ref>|group=N}} Caldwell's victories in North Africa included 10 Bf 109s and two Macchi C.202s.<ref name="wwii_ace_stories_caldwell">Dragicevic, George. [http://www.elknet.pl/acestory/caldw/caldw.htm "Clive 'Killer' Caldwell: Stuka Party".] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130712021216/http://www.elknet.pl/acestory/caldw/caldw.htm |date=12 July 2013 }} ''elknet.pl'', 17 July 1999. Retrieved: 7 March 2006.</ref> [[Billy Drake]] of 112 Squadron was the leading British P-40 ace with 13 victories.<ref name = "P40RAF"/> [[James Francis Edwards|James "Stocky" Edwards]] (RCAF), who achieved 12 kills in the P-40 in North Africa, shot down German ace Otto Schulz (51 kills) while flying a Kittyhawk with [[No. 260 Squadron RAF]].<ref name = "P40RAF"/> Caldwell, Drake, Edwards and [[Nicky Barr]] were among at least a dozen pilots who achieved ace status twice over while flying the P-40.<ref name="P40RAF">Thomas 2002</ref><ref name="P40CBI">Molesworth 2000</ref> A total of 46 British Commonwealth pilots became aces in P-40s, including seven double aces.<ref name = "P40RAF"/>