Editing Criminal justice (section)

==Academic discipline==
The functional study of criminal justice is at times distinct from [[criminology]], which involves the study of crime as a social phenomenon, causes of crime, criminal behavior, and other aspects of crime; although in most cases today, criminal justice as a [[Academic discipline|field of study]] is used as a synonym for criminology and the [[sociology of law]]. It emerged as an academic discipline in the 1920s, beginning with [[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]] police chief [[August Vollmer]] who established a criminal justice program at the [[University of California, Berkeley]] in 1916.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Finest of the Finest |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=18 February 1966 |url=http://jcgi.pathfinder.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,899019,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081014095649/http://jcgi.pathfinder.com/time/magazine/article/0%2C9171%2C899019%2C00.html |archive-date=14 October 2008 }}</ref> Vollmer's work was carried on by his student, [[Orlando Winfield Wilson|O.W. Wilson]], who led efforts to professionalize policing and reduce [[Police corruption|corruption]]. Other programs were established in the United States at [[Indiana University (Bloomington)|Indiana University]], [[Michigan State University]], [[San Jose State University]], and the [[University of Washington]].<ref name="savelsberg">{{cite journal |last1=Savelsberg |first1=Joachim J |last2=Cleveland |first2=Lara L. |last3=King |first3=Ryan D. |date=June 2004 |title=Institutional Environments and Scholarly Work: American Criminology, 1951–1993 |journal=Social Forces |volume=82 |pages=1275–1302 |doi=10.1353/sof.2004.0093 | issue=4|s2cid=145220713 }}</ref> As of 1950, criminal justice students were estimated to number less than 1,000.{{Citation needed|date=June 2007}} Until the 1960s, the primary focus of criminal justice in the United States was on policing and police science.

Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, crime rates soared and social issues took center stage in the public eye. A number of new laws and studies focused federal resources on researching new approaches to crime control. The [[Warren Court]] (the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] under [[Chief Justice of the United States|Chief Justice]] [[Earl Warren]]), issued a series of rulings which redefined citizen's rights and substantially altered the powers and responsibilities of police and the courts. The Civil Rights Era offered significant legal and ethical challenges to the ''[[status quo]]''.

In the late 1960s, with the establishment of the [[Law Enforcement Assistance Administration]] (LEAA) and associated policy changes that resulted with the [[Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968]]. The LEAA provided [[Grant (money)|grants]] for criminology research, focusing on social aspects of crime. By the 1970s, there were 729 academic programs in criminology and criminal justice in the United States.<ref name="savelsberg"/> Largely thanks to the [https://web.archive.org/web/20040325070528/http://leepusa.com/ Law Enforcement Education Program], criminal justice students numbered over 100,000 by 1975. Over time, scholars of criminal justice began to include [[criminology]], [[sociology]], and [[psychology]], among others, to provide a more comprehensive view of the criminal justice system and the root causes of crime.  Criminal justice studies now combine the practical and technical policing skills with a study of social deviance as a whole.

Criminal justice degrees are offered at both the two-year community college and four-year university level. Community college criminal justice programs include the Associate of Arts (AA), Associate of Science (AS), and the Associate of Applied Science (AAS) degrees. Criminal justice degree programs at four-year institutions typically include coursework in statistics, methods of research, criminal justice, policing, U.S. court systems, criminal courts, corrections, community corrections, criminal procedure, criminal law, victimology, juvenile justice, and a variety of special topics. A number of universities offer, bachelor's, academic minors, graduate certificates, master's, and doctoral degrees in Criminal Justice; Criminology, Law and Society; [[Administration of justice|Administration of Justice]]; or a specially designated [[Bachelor of Criminal Justice]] degree.

===Theories of criminal justice===
{{Main|Justice#Instrumental theories of justice}}
Theories of criminal justice include [[utilitarian|utilitarian justice]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Punishment {{!}} Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |url=https://iep.utm.edu/punishme/ |access-date=2023-10-05 |language=en-US}}</ref> [[retributive justice]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Punishment |url=https://www.csus.edu/indiv/g/gaskilld/ethics/punishment.htm |website=California State University |access-date=12 August 2020 |archive-date=13 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413204529/https://www.csus.edu/indiv/g/gaskilld/ethics/punishment.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[restorative justice]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wilson |first=Jon |title=Victim-Centered Restorative Justice: An Essential Distinction |url=https://justalternatives.org/VCRJ.pdf}}</ref> They can work through [[Deterrence (legal)|deterrence]],<ref>[https://doi.org/10.1177/002242787401100204 Bailey, William C., J. David Martin, and Louis N. Gray. "Crime and deterrence: A correlation analysis." Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 11.2 (1974): 124-143.]</ref> [[Rehabilitation (penology)|rehabilitation]]<ref>Monahan, John. "Preface: Recidivism Risk Assessment in the 21st Century." Handbook of Recidivism Risk/Needs Assessment Tools (2017).</ref> or [[Incapacitation (penology)|incapacitation]].