Editing Cleopatra (section)

=== Reign ===
{{main|Reign of Cleopatra}}
==== Accession to the throne ====
{{Multiple image
|total_width=300
|image1=Cleopatra Isis Louvre E27113.jpg
|image2=Limestone stela of a high priest of god Ptah. It bears the cartouches of Cleopatra and Caesarion. From Egypt. Ptolemaic Period. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London.jpg
|footer=Left: A limestone [[stele]] dedicated by a [[Greeks|Greek]] man named Onnophris depicting a male [[pharaoh]], but honouring a queen Cleopatra (probably Cleopatra VII), located in the [[Louvre]], Paris<ref group="note">It is disputed whether Cleopatra was deliberately depicted as a male or whether a stele made under her father with his portrait was later inscribed with an inscription for Cleopatra. On this and other uncertainties regarding this stele, see {{harvtxt|Pfeiffer|2015|pages=177–181}}.</ref>{{pb}}Right: The [[cartouche]]s of Cleopatra and [[Caesarion]] on a limestone stele of the [[High Priest of Ptah]] [[Pasherienptah III]] in Egypt, dated to the [[Ptolemaic period]], and located in the [[Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology]], London
}}
Ptolemy XII died sometime before 22 March 51 BC, when Cleopatra, in her first act as queen, began her voyage to [[Hermonthis]], near [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]], to install a new sacred [[Buchis]] bull, worshiped as an intermediary for the god [[Montu]] in the [[Ancient Egyptian religion]].{{sfnp|Hölbl|2001|p=231}}{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=53, 56}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xx, 15–16}}<ref group="note">For further information, see {{harvtxt|Fletcher|2008|pp=88–92}} and {{harvtxt|Jones|2006|pp=31, 34–35}}.{{pb}}{{harvtxt|Fletcher|2008|pp=85–86}} states that the partial [[solar eclipse]] of 7{{nbsp}}March 51 BC marked the death of Ptolemy XII and accession of Cleopatra to the throne, although she apparently suppressed the news of his death, alerting the Roman Senate to this fact months later in a message they received on 30 June 51 BC.{{pb}}However, {{harvtxt|Grant|1972|p=30}} claims that the Senate was informed of his death on 1{{nbsp}}August 51 BC. [[Michael Grant (classicist)|Michael Grant]] indicates that Ptolemy XII could have been alive as late as May, while an ancient Egyptian source affirms he was still ruling with Cleopatra by 15 July 51 BC, although by this point Cleopatra most likely "hushed up her father's death" so that she could consolidate her control of Egypt.</ref> Cleopatra faced several pressing issues and emergencies shortly after taking the throne. These included famine caused by drought and a low level of the annual [[flooding of the Nile]], and lawless behavior instigated by the [[Gabiniani]], the now unemployed and assimilated Roman soldiers left by [[Gabinius]] to garrison Egypt.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=53–54}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=16–17}} Inheriting her father's debts, Cleopatra also owed the [[Roman Republic]] 17.5&nbsp;million [[Ancient drachma|drachma]]s.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=53}}

In 50 BC [[Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus]], [[proconsul]] of Syria, sent his two eldest sons to Egypt, most likely to negotiate with the Gabiniani and recruit them as soldiers in the desperate defense of Syria [[Roman-Parthian Wars|against the Parthians]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=54–56}} The Gabiniani tortured and murdered these two, perhaps with secret encouragement by rogue senior administrators in Cleopatra's court.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=54–56}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=16}} Cleopatra sent the Gabiniani culprits to Bibulus as prisoners awaiting his judgment, but he sent them back to Cleopatra and chastised her for interfering in their adjudication, which was the prerogative of the Roman Senate.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=56}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=16}} Bibulus, siding with Pompey in [[Caesar's Civil War]], failed to prevent Caesar from landing a naval fleet in Greece, which ultimately allowed Caesar to reach Egypt in pursuit of Pompey.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=56}}

By 29 August 51 BC, official documents started listing Cleopatra as the sole ruler, evidence that she had rejected her brother Ptolemy XIII as a co-ruler.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=53}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=16}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=91–92}} She had probably married him,{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=xx}} but there is no record of this.{{sfnp|Hölbl|2001|p=231}} The Ptolemaic practice of [[sibling marriage]] was introduced by [[Ptolemy II]] and his sister [[Arsinoe II]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=36–37}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=5}}{{sfnp|Grant|1972|pp=26–27}} A [[Osiris myth|long-held royal Egyptian practice]], it was loathed by contemporary [[Greeks]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=36–37}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=5}}{{sfnp|Grant|1972|pp=26–27}}<ref group="note">{{harvtxt|Pfrommer|Towne-Markus|2001|p=34}} writes the following about the sibling marriage of Ptolemy II and Arsinoe II: "[[Ptolemy Keraunos]], who wanted to become king of [[Macedon]]{{nbsp}}... killed Arsinoë's small children in front of her. Now queen without a kingdom, Arsinoë fled to Egypt, where she was welcomed by her full brother Ptolemy II. Not content, however, to spend the rest of her life as a guest at the Ptolemaic court, she had Ptolemy II's wife exiled to Upper Egypt and married him herself around 275 B.C. Though such an incestuous marriage was considered scandalous by the Greeks, it was allowed by Egyptian custom. For that reason, the marriage split public opinion into two factions. The loyal side celebrated the couple as a return of the divine marriage of [[Zeus]] and [[Hera]], whereas the other side did not refrain from profuse and obscene criticism. One of the most sarcastic commentators, a poet with a very sharp pen, had to flee Alexandria. The unfortunate poet was caught off the shore of Crete by the Ptolemaic navy, put in an iron basket, and drowned. This and similar actions seemingly slowed down vicious criticism."</ref> By the reign of Cleopatra, however, it was considered a normal arrangement for Ptolemaic rulers.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=36–37}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=5}}{{sfnp|Grant|1972|pp=26–27}}

Despite Cleopatra's rejection of him, Ptolemy XIII still retained powerful allies, notably the eunuch [[Potheinos]], his childhood tutor, regent, and administrator of his properties.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=56–57}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=16–17}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=73, 92–93}} Others involved in the cabal against Cleopatra included [[Achillas]], a prominent military commander, and [[Theodotus of Chios]], another tutor of Ptolemy XIII.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=56–57}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=92–93}} Cleopatra seems to have attempted a short-lived alliance with her brother Ptolemy XIV, but by the autumn of 50 BC Ptolemy XIII had the upper hand in their conflict and began signing documents with his name before that of his sister, followed by the establishment of his first [[regnal date]] in 49 BC.{{sfnp|Hölbl|2001|p=231}}{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=57}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xx, 17}}<ref group="note">For further information, see {{harvtxt|Fletcher|2008|pp=92–93}}.</ref>

==== Assassination of Pompey ====
[[File:(Venice) Pompey the Great, Museo Archeologico Nazionale.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|A Roman portrait of [[Pompey]] made during the reign of [[Augustus]] (27 BC – 14 AD), a copy of an original from 70 to 60 BC, and located in the [[Venice National Archaeological Museum]], Italy]]

In the summer of 49 BC, Cleopatra and [[Ptolemaic army|her forces]] were still fighting against Ptolemy XIII within Alexandria when Pompey's son [[Gnaeus Pompeius (son of Pompey the Great)|Gnaeus Pompeius]] arrived, seeking military aid on behalf of his father.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=57}} After returning to Italy from [[Gallic Wars|the wars in Gaul]] and [[crossing the Rubicon]] in January of 49 BC, Caesar had forced Pompey and his supporters to [[Caesar's Civil War#Civil war|flee to Greece]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=58}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=94–95}} In perhaps their last joint decree, both Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIII agreed to Gnaeus Pompeius's request and sent his father 60 ships and 500 troops, including the Gabiniani, a move that helped erase some of the debt owed to Rome.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=58}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|p=95}} Losing the fight against her brother, Cleopatra was then forced to flee Alexandria and withdraw to the region of Thebes.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=58–59}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=17}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=95–96}} By the spring of 48 BC Cleopatra had traveled to [[Roman Syria]] with her younger sister, Arsinoe IV, to gather an invasion force that would head to Egypt.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=59}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xx, 17}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|p=96}} She returned with an army, but her advance to Alexandria was blocked by her brother's forces, including some Gabiniani mobilized to fight against her, so she camped outside Pelousion in the eastern [[Nile Delta]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=59–60}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xx, 17}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=97–98}}

In Greece, Caesar and Pompey's forces engaged each other at the decisive [[Battle of Pharsalus]] on 9{{nbsp}}August 48 BC, leading to the destruction of most of Pompey's army and his forced flight to [[Tyre, Lebanon]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=59–60}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=259}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxi, 17}}<ref group="note">For further information, see {{harvtxt|Fletcher|2008|pp=96–97}} and {{harvtxt|Jones|2006|p=39}}.</ref> Given his close relationship with the Ptolemies, Pompey ultimately decided that Egypt would be his place of refuge, where he could replenish his forces.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=60}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxi, 17}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=97–98}}<ref group="note" name="Pompey">For further information, see {{harvtxt|Jones|2006|pp=39–41}}.</ref> Ptolemy XIII's advisers, however, feared the idea of Pompey using Egypt as his base in a protracted Roman civil war.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=60}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|p=98}}{{sfnp|Jones|2006|pp=39–43, 53}} In a scheme devised by Theodotus, Pompey arrived by ship near Pelousion after being invited by a written message, only to be ambushed and stabbed to death on 28 September 48 BC.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=60}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=259}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxi, 17–18}}<ref group="note" name="fletcher 2008 p98">For further information, see {{harvtxt|Fletcher|2008|p=98}} and {{harvtxt|Jones|2006|pp=39–43, 53–55}}.</ref> Ptolemy XIII believed he had demonstrated his power and simultaneously defused the situation by having Pompey's head, severed and [[embalm]]ed, sent to Caesar, who arrived in Alexandria by early October and took up residence at the royal palace.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=60–61}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|pp=259–260}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxi, 18}}<ref group="note" name="fletcher 2008 p98"/> Caesar expressed grief and outrage over the killing of Pompey and called on both Ptolemy XIII and Cleopatra to disband their forces and reconcile with each other.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=60–61}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=260}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxi, 18}}<ref group="note">For further information, see {{harvtxt|Fletcher|2008|pp=98–100}} and {{harvtxt|Jones|2006|pp=53–55}}.</ref>

==== Relationship with Julius Caesar ====
{{further|Military campaigns of Julius Caesar|Siege of Alexandria (47 BC)|Battle of the Nile (47 BC)|Caesareum of Alexandria}}

[[File:Cleopatra and Caesar by Jean-Leon-Gerome.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|''[[Cleopatra and Caesar (painting)|Cleopatra and Caesar]]'' (1866), a painting by [[Jean-Léon Gérôme]]]]
Ptolemy XIII arrived at Alexandria at the head of his army, in clear defiance of Caesar's demand that he disband and leave his army before his arrival.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=61}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|p=100}} Cleopatra initially sent emissaries to Caesar, but upon allegedly hearing that Caesar was inclined to having affairs with royal women, she came to Alexandria to see him personally.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=61}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=18}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|p=100}} Historian [[Cassius Dio]] records that she did so without informing her brother, dressed in an attractive manner, and charmed Caesar with her wit.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=61}}{{sfnp|Hölbl|2001|pp=234–235}}{{sfnp|Jones|2006|pp=56–57}} [[Plutarch]] provides an entirely different account that alleges she was bound inside a bed sack to be smuggled into the palace to meet Caesar.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=61}}{{sfnp|Hölbl|2001|p=234}}{{sfnp|Jones|2006|pp=57–58}}<ref group="note">For further information, see {{harvtxt|Burstein|2004|p=18}} and {{harvtxt|Fletcher|2008|pp=101–103}}.</ref>

When Ptolemy XIII realized that his sister was in the palace consorting directly with Caesar, he attempted to rouse the populace of Alexandria into a riot, but he was arrested by Caesar, who used his oratorical skills to calm the frenzied crowd.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=61–62}}{{sfnp|Hölbl|2001|p=235}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=112–113}} Caesar then brought Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIII before the [[Boule (ancient Greece)|assembly of Alexandria]], where Caesar revealed the written will of Ptolemy XII—previously possessed by Pompey—naming Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIII as his joint heirs.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=26, 62}}{{sfnp|Hölbl|2001|p=235}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=18}}<ref group="note" name="fletcher 2008 p113">For further information, see {{harvtxt|Fletcher|2008|p=113}}.</ref> Caesar then attempted to arrange for the other two siblings, Arsinoe IV and Ptolemy XIV, to rule together over Cyprus, thus removing potential rival claimants to the Egyptian throne while also appeasing the Ptolemaic subjects still bitter over the loss of Cyprus to the Romans in 58 BC.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=62}}{{sfnp|Hölbl|2001|p=235}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=18, 76}}<ref group="note" name="fletcher 2008 p113"/>

Judging that this agreement favored Cleopatra over Ptolemy XIII and that the latter's army of 20,000, including the Gabiniani, could most likely defeat Caesar's army of 4,000 unsupported troops, Potheinos decided to have Achillas lead their forces to Alexandria to attack both Caesar and Cleopatra.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=62}}{{sfnp|Hölbl|2001|p=235}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=18–19}}<ref group="note">For further information, see {{harvtxt|Fletcher|2008|p=118}}.</ref> After Caesar managed to execute Potheinos, Arsinoe IV joined forces with Achillas and was declared queen, but soon afterward had her tutor [[Ganymedes (eunuch)|Ganymedes]] kill Achillas and take his position as commander of her army.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=63}}{{sfnp|Hölbl|2001|p=236}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=118–119}}<ref group="note">For further information, see {{harvtxt|Burstein|2004|p=76}}.</ref> Ganymedes then tricked Caesar into requesting the presence of the erstwhile captive Ptolemy XIII as a negotiator, only to have him join the army of Arsinoe IV.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=63}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxi, 76}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|p=119}} The resulting [[Siege of Alexandria (47 BC)|siege of the palace]], with Caesar and Cleopatra trapped together inside, lasted into the following year of 47 BC.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=62–63}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=260}}{{sfnp|Hölbl|2001|pp=235–236}}<ref group="note">For further information, see {{harvtxt|Burstein|2004|pp=xxi, 19}} and {{harvtxt|Fletcher|2008|pp=118–120}}.</ref>

[[File:Retrato de Julio César (26724093101).jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|The [[Tusculum portrait]], a contemporary Roman sculpture of [[Julius Caesar]] located in the Archaeological Museum of [[Turin]], Italy]]
Sometime between January and March of 47 BC, Caesar's reinforcements arrived, including those led by [[Mithridates of Pergamon]] and [[Antipater the Idumaean]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=63}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=260}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=19}}<ref group="note">For further information, see {{harvtxt|Fletcher|2008|pp=119–120}}.{{pb}}As part of the siege of Alexandria, {{harvtxt|Burstein|2004|p=19}} states that Caesar's reinforcements came in January, but {{harvtxt|Roller|2010|p=63}} says that his reinforcements came in March.</ref> Ptolemy XIII and Arsinoe IV withdrew their forces to the [[Nile]], [[Battle of the Nile (47 BC)|where Caesar attacked them]]. Ptolemy XIII tried to flee by boat, but it capsized, and he drowned.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=63–64}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=260}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxi, 19, 76}}<ref group="note">For further information and validation, see {{harvtxt|Anderson|2003|p=39}} and {{harvtxt|Fletcher|2008|p=120}}.</ref> Ganymedes may have been killed in the battle. [[Theodotus of Chios|Theodotus]] was found years later in Asia, by [[Marcus Junius Brutus]], and executed. Arsinoe IV was forcefully paraded in Caesar's [[triumph in Rome]] before being exiled to the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=64}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxi, 19–21, 76}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|p=172}} Cleopatra was conspicuously absent from these events and resided in the palace, most likely because she had been pregnant with Caesar's child since September 48 BC.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=64, 69}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxi, 19–20}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|p=120}}

Caesar's term as consul had expired at the end of 48 BC.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=64}} However, Antony, an officer of his, helped to secure Caesar's appointment as [[Roman dictator|dictator]] lasting for a year, until October 47 BC, providing Caesar with the legal authority to settle the dynastic dispute in Egypt.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=64}} Wary of repeating the mistake of Cleopatra's sister Berenice IV in having a female monarch as sole ruler, Caesar appointed the 12-year-old Ptolemy XIV as joint ruler with the 22-year-old Cleopatra in a nominal sibling marriage, but Cleopatra continued living privately with Caesar.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=64–65}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=260}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=19}}<ref group="note">For further information and validation, see {{harvtxt|Fletcher|2008|p=121}} and {{harvtxt|Jones|2006|p=xiv}}.{{pb}}{{harvtxt|Roller|2010|pp=64–65}} states that at this point (47 BC) Ptolemy XIV was 12 years old, while {{harvtxt|Burstein|2004|p=19}} claims that he was still only 10 years of age.</ref> The exact date at which Cyprus was returned to her control is not known, although she had a governor there by 42 BC.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=65}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=19}}

Caesar is alleged to have joined Cleopatra for a cruise of the Nile and sightseeing of [[Ancient Egyptian architecture|Egyptian monuments]],{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=260}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=19–20}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|p=125}} although this may be a romantic tale reflecting later well-to-do Roman proclivities and not a real historical event.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=65–66}} The historian [[Suetonius]] provided considerable details about the voyage, including use of ''[[Thalamegos]]'', the [[pleasure barge]] constructed by [[Ptolemy IV]], which during his reign measured {{convert|300|ft|m|order=flip|sigfig=1}} in length and {{convert|80|ft|m|order=flip}} in height and was complete with dining rooms, state rooms, holy shrines, and [[Promenade deck|promenades]] along its two decks, resembling a floating villa.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=65–66}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|p=126}} Caesar could have had an interest in the Nile cruise owing to his fascination with geography; he was well-read in the works of [[Eratosthenes]] and [[Pytheas]], and perhaps wanted to discover the source of the river, but turned back before reaching Ethiopia.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=66}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=108, 149–150}}

Caesar departed from Egypt around April 47 BC, allegedly to confront [[Pharnaces II of Pontus]], the son of Mithridates VI of Pontus, who was stirring up trouble for Rome in Anatolia.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=67}} It is possible that Caesar, married to the prominent Roman woman [[Calpurnia (wife of Caesar)|Calpurnia]], also wanted to avoid being seen together with Cleopatra when she had their son.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=67}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=19–20}} He left three legions in Egypt, later increased to four, under the command of the [[freedman]] [[Rufio (officer of Caesar)|Rufio]], to secure Cleopatra's tenuous position, but also perhaps to keep her activities in check.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=67}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=20}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|p=153}}

[[File:Ptolemaic Queen (Cleopatra VII?), 50-30 B.C.E., 71.12.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|An Egyptian portrait of a [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemaic]] queen, possibly Cleopatra, {{circa|51–30&nbsp;BC}}, located in the [[Brooklyn Museum]]{{sfnp|Ashton|2001b|p=164}}]]
[[Caesarion]], Cleopatra's alleged child with Caesar, was born sometime in 47, possibly on 23 June 47 BC if [[stele]] at the [[Serapeum of Saqqara]] that mentions "King Caesar" refers to him.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=69–70}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=260}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxi, 20}}<ref group="note">For further information and validation, see {{harvtxt|Anderson|2003|p=39}} and {{harvtxt|Fletcher|2008|pp=154, 161–162}}; for date being disputed, see {{harvtxt|Tyldesley|2009|pp=136-137}}.</ref> Perhaps owing to his still childless marriage with Calpurnia, Caesar remained publicly silent about Caesarion (but perhaps accepted his parentage in private).{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=70}}<ref group="note">{{harvtxt|Roller|2010|p=70}} writes the following about Caesar and his parentage of Caesarion: "The matter of parentage became so tangled in the propaganda war between Antonius and Octavian in the late 30s B.C.—it was essential for one side to prove and the other to reject Caesar's role—that it is impossible today to determine Caesar's actual response. The extant information is almost contradictory: it was said that Caesar denied parentage in his will but acknowledged it privately and allowed the use of the name Caesarion. Caesar's associate C. Oppius even wrote a pamphlet proving that Caesarion was not Caesar's child, and C. Helvius Cinna—the poet who was killed by rioters after Antonius' funeral oration—was prepared in 44 B.C. to introduce legislation to allow Caesar to marry as many wives as he wished for the purpose of having children. Although much of this talk was generated after Caesar's death, it seems that he wished to be as quiet as possible about the child but had to contend with Cleopatra's repeated assertions."</ref> Cleopatra, on the other hand, made repeated official declarations about Caesarion's parentage, naming Caesar as the father.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=70}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=162–163}}{{sfnp|Jones|2006|p=xiv}}

Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIV visited Rome sometime in late 46 BC, presumably without Caesarion, and were given lodging in Caesar's villa within the [[Horti Caesaris]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=71}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxi, 20}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=179–182}}<ref group="note">For further information and validation, see {{harvtxt|Jones|2006|pp=xiv, 78}}.</ref> As with their father Ptolemy XII, Caesar awarded both Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIV the legal status of "friend and ally of the Roman people" ({{Italic correction|{{langx|la|socius et amicus populi Romani}}}}), in effect client rulers loyal to Rome.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=21, 57, 72}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxi, 20, 64}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=181–182}} Cleopatra's visitors at Caesar's villa across the [[Tiber]] included the senator [[Cicero]], who found her arrogant.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=72}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=194–195}} [[Sosigenes of Alexandria]], one of the members of Cleopatra's court, aided Caesar in the calculations for the new [[Julian calendar]], put into effect 1{{nbsp}}January 45 BC.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=72, 126}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=21}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=201–202}} The [[Temple of Venus Genetrix]], established in the [[Forum of Caesar]] on 25 September 46 BC, contained a golden statue of Cleopatra (which stood there at least until the 3rd century AD), associating the mother of Caesar's child directly with the goddess [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]], mother of the Romans.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=72, 175}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=21}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=195–196, 201}} The statue also subtly linked the Egyptian goddess [[Isis]] with the [[Roman religion]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=72}}

Cleopatra's presence in Rome most likely had an effect on the events at the [[Lupercalia]] festival a month before Caesar's assassination.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=72–74}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=205–206}} Antony attempted to place a royal [[diadem]] on Caesar's head, but the latter refused in what was most likely a staged performance, perhaps to gauge the Roman public's mood about accepting Hellenistic-style kingship.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=72–74}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=205–206}} Cicero, who was present at the festival, mockingly asked where the diadem came from, an obvious reference to the Ptolemaic queen whom he abhorred.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=72–74}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=205–206}} [[Caesar was assassinated]] on the [[Ides of March]] (15 March 44 BC), but Cleopatra stayed in Rome until about mid-April, in the vain hope of having Caesarion recognized as Caesar's heir.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=74}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxi, 21}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=207–213}} However, Caesar's will named his grandnephew [[Octavian]] as the primary heir, and Octavian arrived in Italy around the same time Cleopatra decided to depart for Egypt.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=74}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxi, 21}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=213–214}} 

It is suggested, based on Cicero's letter, that Cleopatra might have been pregnant at that time with her and Caesar's second child; if so, this potential pregnancy ended in loss of a baby.{{sfnp|Tyldesley|2009|p=144}} A few months later, Cleopatra allegedly{{sfnp|Tyldesley|2009|pp=145-146."Josephus, consistently anti-Cleopatra and prone to seeping statements, offers no proof in support of his allegation. (...) it is important to remember that estimated average life expectancy for men who survived infancy in Ptolemaic Egypt was only thrirty-three. To die at just fifteen years of age was sad, but it was by no means unusual"}} had Ptolemy XIV killed by poisoning, elevating her son Caesarion as her co-ruler.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=74–75}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxi, 22}}{{sfnp|Jones|2006|p=xiv}}<ref group="note">For further information, see {{harvtxt|Fletcher|2008|pp=214–215}}.</ref>

==== Liberators' civil war<span class="anchor" id="Cleopatra in the Liberators' civil war"></span> ====
{{further|Liberators' civil war}}
[[File:Cleopatra Gate in Tarsus.JPG|thumb|[[Cleopatra's Gate]] in Tarsos (now [[Tarsus, Mersin]], Turkey), the site where she met [[Mark Antony]] in 41 BC{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=77–79, Figure 6}}]]
Octavian, Antony, and [[Marcus Aemilius Lepidus]] formed the [[Second Triumvirate]] in 43 BC, in which they were each [[Elections in the Roman Republic|elected]] for five-year terms to restore order in the Republic and [[Liberators' civil war|bring Caesar's assassins to justice]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=75}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxi, 21–22}} Cleopatra received messages from both [[Gaius Cassius Longinus]], one of Caesar's assassins, and [[Publius Cornelius Dolabella (consul 44 BC)|Publius Cornelius Dolabella]], proconsul of Syria and Caesarian loyalist, requesting military aid.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=75}} She decided to write Cassius an excuse that her kingdom faced too many internal problems, while sending the four legions left by Caesar in Egypt to Dolabella.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=75}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=22}} These troops were captured by Cassius in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=75}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=22}}

While [[Serapion (strategos)|Serapion]], Cleopatra's governor of Cyprus, defected to Cassius and provided him with ships, Cleopatra took her own fleet to Greece to personally assist Octavian and Antony. Her ships were heavily damaged in a Mediterranean storm and she arrived too late to aid in the fighting.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=75}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=22–23}} By the autumn of 42 BC, Antony had defeated the forces of Caesar's assassins at the [[Battle of Philippi]] in Greece, leading to the suicide of Cassius and Brutus.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=75}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxi, 22–23}}

By the end of 42 BC, Octavian had gained control over much of [[Greek East and Latin West|the western half]] of the Roman Republic and Antony the eastern half, with Lepidus largely marginalized.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=76}} In the summer of 41 BC, Antony established his headquarters at [[Tarsos]] in Anatolia and summoned Cleopatra there in several letters, which she rebuffed until Antony's envoy [[Quintus Dellius]] convinced her to come.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=76–77}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxi, 23}} The meeting would allow Cleopatra to clear up the misconception that she had supported Cassius during the civil war and address territorial exchanges in the [[Levant]], but Antony also undoubtedly desired to form a personal, romantic relationship with the queen.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=77}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxi, 23}} Cleopatra sailed up the [[Berdan River|Kydnos River]] to Tarsos in ''Thalamegos'', hosting Antony and his officers for two nights of lavish banquets on board the ship.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=77–79}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=23}}<ref group="note">As explained by {{harvtxt|Burstein|2004|p=23}}, Cleopatra, having read Antony's personality, boldly presented herself to him as the Egyptian goddess Isis (in the appearance of the Greek goddess [[Aphrodite]]) meeting her divine husband [[Osiris]] (in the form of the Greek god [[Dionysus]]), knowing that the priests of the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus had associated Antony with Dionysus shortly before this encounter. According to {{harvtxt|Brown|2011}}, a cult surrounding Isis had been spreading across the region for hundreds of years, and Cleopatra, like many of her predecessors, sought to identify herself with Isis and be venerated. In addition, some surviving coins of Cleopatra also depict her as Venus–Aphrodite, as explained by {{harvtxt|Fletcher|2008|p=205}}.</ref> Cleopatra managed to clear her name as a supposed supporter of Cassius, arguing she had really attempted to help Dolabella in Syria, and convinced Antony to have her exiled sister, Arsinoe IV, executed at Ephesus.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=79}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxi, 24, 76}} Cleopatra's former rebellious governor of Cyprus was also handed over to her for execution.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=79}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=24}}

==== Relationship with Mark Antony ====
[[File:Octavian and Antony denarius (obverse).jpg|thumb|[[Denarius]] depicting [[Mark Antony]] minted by [[List of Roman moneyers during the Republic|Marcus Barbatius]]]]

Cleopatra invited Antony to come to Egypt before departing from Tarsos, which led Antony to visit Alexandria by November 41 BC.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=79}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxii, 24}} Antony was well received by the populace of Alexandria, both for his heroic actions in restoring Ptolemy XII to power and coming to Egypt without an occupation force like Caesar had done.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=79–80}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=25}} In Egypt, Antony continued to enjoy the lavish royal lifestyle he had witnessed aboard Cleopatra's ship docked at Tarsos.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=77–79, 82}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=24}} He also had his subordinates, such as [[Publius Ventidius Bassus]], [[Battle of Mount Gindarus|drive the Parthians out]] of Anatolia and Syria.{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=25}}{{sfnp|Bivar|1983|p=58}}{{sfnp|Brosius|2006|p=96}}<ref group="note">For further information about Publius Ventidius Bassus and his victory over [[Parthian Empire|Parthian forces]] at the Battle of Mount Gindarus, see {{harvtxt|Kennedy|1996|pp=80–81}}.</ref>

Cleopatra carefully chose Antony as her partner for producing further heirs, as he was deemed to be the most powerful Roman figure following Caesar's demise.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=81–82}} With his powers as a triumvir, Antony also had the broad authority to restore former Ptolemaic lands, which were currently in Roman hands, to Cleopatra.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=82–83}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=301}} While it is clear that both [[Cilicia]] and Cyprus were under Cleopatra's control by 19 November 38 BC, the transfer probably occurred earlier in the winter of 41–40 BC, during her time spent with Antony.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=82–83}}

By the spring of 40 BC, Antony left Egypt due to troubles in Syria, where his governor [[Lucius Decidius Saxa]] was killed and his army taken by [[Quintus Labienus]], a former officer under Cassius who now served the [[Parthian Empire]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=83}} Cleopatra provided Antony with 200 ships for his campaign and as payment for her newly acquired territories.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=83}} She would not see Antony again until 37 BC, but she maintained correspondence, and evidence suggests she kept a spy in his camp.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=83}} By the end of 40 BC, Cleopatra had given birth to twins, a boy named [[Alexander Helios]] and a girl named [[Cleopatra Selene II]], both of whom Antony acknowledged as his children.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=83–84}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxii, 25}} [[Helios]] (the Sun) and [[Selene]] (the Moon) were symbolic of a new era of societal rejuvenation,{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=84}} as well as an indication that Cleopatra hoped Antony would repeat the [[Wars of Alexander the Great|exploits of Alexander the Great]] by conquering the [[Parthian Empire|Parthians]].{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=25}}

[[File:Sir_Lawrence_Alma-Tadema_-_The_Meeting_of_Antony_and_Cleopatra.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.15|''The Meeting of Antony and Cleopatra'' (1885), by [[Lawrence Alma-Tadema]]]]
Mark Antony's Parthian campaign in the east was disrupted by the events of the [[Perusine War]] (41–40 BC), initiated by his ambitious wife [[Fulvia]] against Octavian in the hopes of making her husband the undisputed leader of Rome.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=84}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=73}} It has been suggested that Fulvia wanted to cleave Antony away from Cleopatra, but the conflict emerged in Italy even before Cleopatra's meeting with Antony at Tarsos.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=84–85}} Fulvia and Antony's brother [[Lucius Antonius (brother of Mark Antony)|Lucius Antonius]] were eventually besieged by Octavian at [[Perusia]] (modern [[Perugia]], Italy) and then exiled from Italy, after which Fulvia died at [[Sicyon]] in Greece while attempting to reach Antony.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=85}} Her sudden death led to a reconciliation of Octavian and Antony at [[Brundisium]] in Italy in September 40 BC.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=85}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=25}} Although the agreement struck at Brundisium solidified Antony's control of the Roman Republic's territories east of the [[Ionian Sea]], it also stipulated that he concede [[Roman Italy|Italia]], [[Hispania]], and [[Roman Gaul|Gaul]], and marry Octavian's sister [[Octavia the Younger]], a potential rival for Cleopatra.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=85–86}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxii, 25, 73}}

In December 40 BC Cleopatra received [[Herod the Great|Herod]] in Alexandria as an unexpected guest and refugee who fled a turbulent situation in [[Judea]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=86}} Herod had been installed as a [[Herodian Tetrarchy|tetrarch]] there by Antony, but he was soon at odds with [[Antigonus II Mattathias]] of the long-established Hasmonean dynasty.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=86}} The latter had imprisoned Herod's brother and fellow tetrarch [[Phasael]], who was executed while Herod was fleeing toward Cleopatra's court.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=86}} Cleopatra attempted to provide him with a military assignment, but Herod declined and traveled to Rome, where the triumvirs Octavian and Antony named him [[List of Hasmonean and Herodian rulers|king of Judea]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=86–87}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=26}} This act put Herod on a collision course with Cleopatra, who would desire to reclaim the former Ptolemaic territories that comprised his new [[Herodian kingdom]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=86–87}}

{{multiple image
| align             = left
| image1            = An ancient Roman bust of Cleopatra VII of Ptolemaic Egypt2.jpg
| width1            = 130
| alt1              = 
| caption1          = 
| image2            = An ancient Roman bust of Cleopatra VII of Ptolemaic Egypt1.jpg
| width2            = 130
| alt2              = 
| caption2          = 
| footer            = An ancient [[Roman Republican portraiture|Roman sculpture]] possibly depicting either Cleopatra of [[Ptolemaic Egypt]],{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|loc=image plates between pp. 246–247}}{{sfnp|Ferroukhi|2001b|p=242}}<ref group="note" name="Cherchel bust"/> or her daughter, [[Cleopatra Selene II]], Queen of [[Kingdom of Mauretania|Mauretania]],{{sfnp|Roller|2003|p=139}} located in the [[Archaeological Museum of Cherchell]], Algeria
}}

Relations between Antony and Cleopatra perhaps soured when he not only married Octavia, but also sired her two children, [[Antonia the Elder]] in 39 BC and [[Antonia Minor]] in 36 BC, and moved his headquarters to Athens.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=89}} However, Cleopatra's position in Egypt was secure.{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=25}} Her rival Herod was occupied with civil war in Judea that required heavy Roman military assistance, but received none from Cleopatra.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=89}} Since the authority of Antony and Octavian as triumvirs had expired on 1{{nbsp}}January 37 BC, Octavia arranged for a meeting at [[Taranto|Tarentum]], where the triumvirate was officially extended to 33 BC.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=89–90}} With two [[Roman legion|legions]] granted by Octavian and a thousand soldiers lent by Octavia, Antony traveled to [[Antioch]], where he made preparations for war against the Parthians.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=90}}

Antony summoned Cleopatra to Antioch to discuss pressing issues, such as Herod's kingdom and financial support for his Parthian campaign.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=90}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxii, 25–26}} Cleopatra brought her now three-year-old twins to Antioch, where Antony saw them for the first time and where they probably first received their surnames Helios and Selene as part of Antony and Cleopatra's ambitious plans for the future.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=90–91}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=77}} In order to stabilize the east, Antony not only enlarged Cleopatra's domain,{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxii, 25–26}} he also established new ruling dynasties and client rulers who would be loyal to him, yet would ultimately outlast him.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=91–92}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=301}}<ref group="note">According to {{harvtxt|Roller|2010|pp=91–92}}, these client state rulers installed by Antony included Herod, [[Amyntas of Galatia]], [[Polemon I of Pontus]], and [[Archelaus of Cappadocia]].</ref>

In this arrangement Cleopatra gained significant former Ptolemaic territories in the Levant, including nearly all of [[Phoenicia]] (Lebanon) minus [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]] and [[Sidon]], which remained in Roman hands.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=92}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=301}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxii, 25–26}} She also received [[Ptolemais Akko]] (modern [[Acre, Israel]]), a city that was established by Ptolemy II.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=92}} Given her [[Seleucid dynasty|ancestral relations with the Seleucids]], she was granted the region of [[Coele-Syria]] along the upper [[Orontes River]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=92–93}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxii, 25–26}} She was even given the region surrounding [[Jericho]] in Palestine, but she leased this territory back to Herod.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=93–94}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=26}} At the expense of the [[List of Nabataean kings|Nabataean king]] [[Malichus I]] (a cousin of Herod), Cleopatra was also given a portion of the [[Nabataean Kingdom]] around the [[Gulf of Aqaba]] on the [[Red Sea]], including Ailana (modern [[Aqaba]], Jordan).{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=94, 142}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=26}} To the west Cleopatra was handed [[Cyrene, Libya|Cyrene]] along the Libyan coast, as well as [[Itanos]] and [[Olous]] in [[Roman Crete]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=94}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxii, 25–26}} Although still administered by Roman officials, these territories nevertheless enriched her kingdom and led her to declare the inauguration of a new era by double-dating [[Ptolemaic coinage|her coinage]] in 36 BC.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=95}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=26–27}}
[[File:Antony with Octavian aureus.jpg|thumb|Roman [[aureus]] bearing the portraits of [[Mark Antony]] (left) and [[Octavian]] (right), issued in 41&nbsp;BC to celebrate the establishment of the [[Second Triumvirate]] by Octavian, Antony and [[Marcus Aemilius Lepidus]] in 43&nbsp;BC]]

Antony's enlargement of the Ptolemaic realm by relinquishing directly controlled Roman territory was exploited by his rival Octavian, who tapped into the public sentiment in Rome against the empowerment of a foreign queen at the expense of their Republic.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=94–95}} Octavian, fostering the narrative that Antony was neglecting his virtuous Roman wife Octavia, granted both her and [[Livia]], his own wife, extraordinary privileges of [[sacrosanctity]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=94–95}} Some 50 years before, [[Cornelia Africana]], daughter of [[Scipio Africanus]], had been the first living Roman woman to have a statue dedicated to her.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=95}} She was now followed by Octavia and Livia, whose statues were most likely erected in the Forum of Caesar to rival that of Cleopatra's, erected by Caesar.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=95}}

In 36 BC, Cleopatra accompanied Antony to the [[Euphrates]] in his journey toward invading the Parthian Empire.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=95–96}} She then returned to Egypt, perhaps due to her advanced state of pregnancy.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=96}} By the summer of 36 BC, she had given birth to [[Ptolemy Philadelphus (son of Cleopatra)|Ptolemy Philadelphus]], her second son with Antony.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=96}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxii, 25–26}}

[[Antony's Parthian campaign]] in 36 BC turned into a complete debacle for a number of reasons, in particular the betrayal of [[Artavasdes II of Armenia]], who defected to the Parthian side.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=97}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=301}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxii, 27}} After losing some 30,000 men, more than Crassus at Carrhae (an indignity he had hoped to avenge), Antony finally arrived at Leukokome near [[Berytus]] (modern [[Beirut]], Lebanon) in December, engaged in heavy drinking before Cleopatra arrived to provide funds and clothing for his battered troops.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=97}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=27}} Antony desired to avoid the risks involved in returning to Rome, and so he traveled with Cleopatra back to Alexandria to see his newborn son.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=97}}

==== Donations of Alexandria ====
{{main|Donations of Alexandria}}
[[File:Mark Antony & Cleopatra, denarius, 34 BC, 543-1.jpg|thumb|A [[denarius]] minted by [[Mark Antony|Antony]] in 34 BC with his portrait on the [[obverse]], which bears the inscription reading "ANTONI ARMENIA DEVICTA" (For Antony, [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Armenia]] having been vanquished), alluding to his [[Antony's campaign against Armenia|Armenian campaign]]. The reverse features Cleopatra, with the inscription "CLEOPATR[AE] REGINAE REGVM FILIORVM REGVM" (For Cleopatra, [[Queen of Kings]] and of the children of kings). The mention of her children on the reverse refers to the [[Donations of Alexandria]].{{sfnp|Crawford|1974|pp=102, 539}}{{sfnp|Newman|1990|pp=50, 51 (note 29)}}<ref>{{Cite news |date=14 February 2007 |title=Coin shows Cleopatra's ugly truth |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/tyne/6357311.stm#:~:text=On%20one%20side%20is%20the,,%20Armenia%20having%20been%20vanquished%22. |access-date=22 May 2024 |language=en-GB}}</ref>]]

As Antony prepared for another Parthian expedition in 35 BC, this time aimed at their ally [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Armenia]], Octavia traveled to Athens with 2,000 troops in alleged support of Antony, but most likely in a scheme devised by Octavian to embarrass him for his military losses.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=97–98}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=27–28}}<ref group="note">{{harvtxt|Bringmann|2007|p=301}} claims that [[Octavia Minor]] provided Antony with 1,200 troops, not 2,000 as stated in {{harvtxt|Roller|2010|pp=97–98}} and {{harvtxt|Burstein|2004|pp=27–28}}.</ref> Antony received these troops but told Octavia not to stray east of Athens as he and Cleopatra traveled together to Antioch, only to suddenly and inexplicably abandon the military campaign and head back to Alexandria.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=97–98}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=27–28}} When Octavia returned to Rome Octavian portrayed his sister as a victim wronged by Antony, although she refused to leave Antony's household.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=98}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=301}} Octavian's confidence grew as he eliminated his rivals in the west, including [[Sextus Pompeius]] and even Lepidus, the third member of the triumvirate, who was placed under house arrest after revolting against Octavian in Sicily.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=98}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=301}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=27}}

Dellius was sent as Antony's envoy to Artavasdes II in 34 BC to negotiate a potential [[marriage alliance]] that would wed the Armenian king's daughter to Alexander Helios, the son of Antony and Cleopatra.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=99}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=28}} When this was declined, Antony marched his army into Armenia, defeated their forces and captured the king and Armenian royal family.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=99}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxii, 28}} Antony then held a military parade in Alexandria as an imitation of a Roman triumph, dressed as [[Dionysus]] and riding into the city on a chariot to present the royal prisoners to Cleopatra, who was seated on a golden throne above a silver dais.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=99}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=28–29}} News of this event was heavily criticized in Rome as a perversion of time-honored Roman rites and rituals to be enjoyed instead by an Egyptian queen.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=99}}

[[File:Papyrus document containing signature of Cleopatra VII of Egypt.jpg|thumb|left|A [[papyrus]] document dated February 33 BC granting tax exemptions to a person in Egypt and containing the signature of Cleopatra written by an official, but with "{{lang|grc|γινέσθωι}}" ({{transliteration|grc|ginésthōi}}; {{literal translation|lk=on}}&nbsp;"make it happen"{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=133–134}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=33}} or "so be it"{{sfnp|Reece|2017|pp=201–202}}) added in Greek, likely by the queen's own hand{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=133–134}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=33}}{{sfnp|Reece|2017|pp=201–202}}]]
In an event held at the [[Gymnasium (ancient Greece)|gymnasium]] soon after the triumph, Cleopatra dressed as Isis and declared that she was the [[Queen of Kings]] with her son Caesarion, [[King of Kings]], while Alexander Helios was declared king of Armenia, [[Media (region)|Media]], and Parthia, and two-year-old [[Ptolemy Philadelphus (son of Cleopatra)|Ptolemy Philadelphus]] was declared king of Syria and Cilicia.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=99–100}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|pp=301–302}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxii, 29}} Cleopatra Selene II was bestowed with Crete and Cyrene.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=100}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=29}} Antony and Cleopatra may have been wed during this ceremony.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=100}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxii, 29}}<ref group="note">{{harvtxt|Roller|2010|p=100}} says that it is unclear if Antony and Cleopatra were ever truly married. {{harvtxt|Burstein|2004|pp=xxii, 29}} says that the marriage publicly sealed Antony's alliance with Cleopatra and in defiance of Octavian he would divorce Octavia in 32 BC. Coins of Antony and Cleopatra depict them in the typical manner of a Hellenistic royal couple, as explained by {{harvtxt|Roller|2010|p=100}}.</ref> Antony sent a report to Rome requesting ratification of these territorial claims, now known as the [[Donations of Alexandria]]. Octavian wanted to publicize it for propaganda purposes, but the two consuls, both supporters of Antony, had it censored from public view.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=100–101}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=29}}

In late 34 BC, Antony and Octavian engaged in a heated war of propaganda that would last for years.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=129–130}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=29}}{{sfnp|Jones|2006|p=xiv}}<ref group="note">{{harvtxt|Jones|2006|p=xiv}} writes that "Octavian waged a propaganda war against Antony and Cleopatra, stressing Cleopatra's status as a woman and a foreigner who wished to share in Roman power."</ref> Antony claimed that his rival had illegally deposed Lepidus from their triumvirate and barred him from raising troops in Italy, while Octavian accused Antony of unlawfully detaining the king of Armenia, marrying Cleopatra despite still being married to his sister Octavia, and wrongfully claiming Caesarion as the heir of Caesar instead of Octavian.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=129–130}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=29}} The litany of accusations and gossip associated with this propaganda war have shaped the popular perceptions about Cleopatra from [[Augustan literature (ancient Rome)|Augustan-period literature]] through to various media in modern times.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=130}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=65–66}} Cleopatra was said to have brainwashed Mark Antony with [[Magic in the Graeco-Roman world|witchcraft and sorcery]] and was as dangerous as [[Homer]]'s [[Helen of Troy]] in destroying civilization.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=130–131}} [[Pliny the Elder]] claims in his ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]'' that Cleopatra once dissolved a pearl worth tens of millions of sesterces in vinegar just to win a dinner-party bet.{{sfnp|Pliny the Elder|1906|loc=[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0137%3Abook%3D9%3Achapter%3D58 IX, ch. 58]}}{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=132}} The accusation that Antony had stolen books from the [[Library of Pergamum]] to restock the Library of Alexandria later turned out to be an admitted fabrication by [[Gaius Calvisius Sabinus (consul 39 BC)|Gaius Calvisius Sabinus]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=133}}

A [[papyrus]] document dated to February 33 BC, later used to wrap a [[mummy]], contains the signature of Cleopatra, probably written by an official authorized to sign for her.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=133–134}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=33}} It concerns certain tax exemptions in Egypt granted to either Quintus Caecillius or [[Publius Canidius Crassus]],<ref group="note">[[Stanley M. Burstein]], in {{harvtxt|Burstein|2004|p=33}} provides the name Quintus Cascellius as the recipient of the tax exemption, not the [[Publius Canidius Crassus]] provided by [[Duane W. Roller]] in {{harvtxt|Roller|2010|p=134}}.</ref> a former Roman consul and Antony's confidant who would command his land forces at [[Actium]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=134}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=33}} A subscript in a different handwriting at the bottom of the papyrus reads "make it happen"{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=134}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=33}} or "so be it"{{sfnp|Reece|2017|pp=201–202}} ({{langx|grc|γινέσθωι|ginésthōi}});<ref group="note">{{harvtxt|Reece|2017|p=203}} notes that "[t]he fragmentary texts of ancient Greek papyri do not often make their way into the modern public arena, but this one has, and with fascinating results, while remaining almost entirely unacknowledged is the remarkable fact that Cleopatra's one-word subscription contains a blatant spelling error: {{lang|grc|γινέσθωι}}, with a superfluous [[iota]] [[adscript]]." This spelling error "has not been noted by the popular media", however, being "simply transliterated&nbsp;[...] including, without comment, the superfluous iota adscript" (p.&nbsp;208). Even in academic sources, the misspelling was largely unacknowledged or quietly corrected (pp.&nbsp;206–208, 210).{{pb}}Although described as {{"'}}normal' orthography" (in contrast with {{"'}}correct' orthography") by Peter van Minnen (p.&nbsp;208), the spelling error is "much rarer and more puzzling" than the sort one would expect from the Greek papyri from Egypt (p.&nbsp;210)—so rare, in fact, that it occurs only twice in the 70,000 Greek papyri between the 3rd century BC and 8th century AD in the Papyrological Navigator's database. This is especially so when considering it was added to a word "with no etymological or morphological reason for having an iota adscript" (p.&nbsp;210) and was written by "the well-educated, native Greek-speaking, queen of Egypt" Cleopatra VII (p.&nbsp;208).</ref> this is likely the autograph of the queen, as it was Ptolemaic practice to [[Countersign (legal)|countersign]] documents to avoid forgery.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=134}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=33}}

==== Battle of Actium ====
{{main|Battle of Actium}}
[[File:Augustus Statue.JPG|thumb|upright=0.75|A reconstructed statue of [[Augustus]] as a younger Octavian, dated {{circa|30 BC}}]]

In a speech to the Roman Senate on the first day of his consulship on 1{{nbsp}}January 33 BC, Octavian accused Antony of attempting to subvert Roman freedoms and territorial integrity as a slave to his Oriental queen.{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=302}} Before Antony and Octavian's joint ''[[imperium]]'' expired on 31 December 33 BC, Antony declared Caesarion as the true heir of Caesar in an attempt to undermine Octavian.{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=302}} In 32 BC, the Antonian loyalists [[Gaius Sosius]] and [[Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul 32 BC)|Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus]] became consuls. The former gave a fiery speech condemning Octavian, now a private citizen without public office, and introduced pieces of legislation against him.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=134}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|pp=302–303}} During the next senatorial session, Octavian entered the Senate house with armed guards and levied his own accusations against the consuls.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=134}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=303}} Intimidated by this act, the consuls and over 200 senators still in support of Antony fled Rome the next day to join the side of Antony.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=134}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=303}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=29–30}}

Antony and Cleopatra traveled together to Ephesus in 32 BC, where she provided him with 200 of the 800 naval ships he was able to acquire.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=134}} Ahenobarbus, wary of having Octavian's propaganda confirmed to the public, attempted to persuade Antony to have Cleopatra excluded from the campaign against Octavian.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=135}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=30}} Publius Canidius Crassus made the counterargument that Cleopatra was funding the war effort and was a competent monarch.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=135}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=30}} Cleopatra refused Antony's requests that she return to Egypt, judging that by blocking Octavian in Greece she could more easily defend Egypt.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=135}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=30}} Cleopatra's insistence that she be involved in the battle for Greece led to the defections of prominent Romans, such as Ahenobarbus and [[Lucius Munatius Plancus]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=135}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=303}}

During the spring of 32 BC Antony and Cleopatra traveled to Athens, where she persuaded Antony to send Octavia an official declaration of divorce.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=135}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=303}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxii, 29}} This encouraged Plancus to advise Octavian that he should seize Antony's will, invested with the [[Vestal Virgin]]s.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=135}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=303}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=29}} Although a violation of sacred and legal rights, Octavian forcefully acquired the document from the [[Temple of Vesta]], and it became a useful tool in the propaganda war against Antony and Cleopatra.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=135}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=29}} Octavian highlighted parts of the will, such as Caesarion being named heir to Caesar, that the Donations of Alexandria were legal, that Antony should be buried alongside Cleopatra in Egypt instead of Rome, and that Alexandria would be made the new capital of the Roman Republic.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=136}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=303}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=29}} In a show of loyalty to Rome, Octavian decided to begin construction of [[Mausoleum of Augustus|his own mausoleum]] at the [[Campus Martius]].{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=303}} Octavian's legal standing was also improved by being elected consul in 31 BC.{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=303}} With Antony's will made public, Octavian had his ''[[casus belli]]'', and Rome declared war on Cleopatra,{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=136}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxii, 30}}{{sfnp|Jones|2006|p=147}} not Antony.<ref group="note">As explained by {{harvtxt|Jones|2006|p=147}}, "politically, Octavian had to walk a fine line as he prepared to engage in open hostilities with Antony. He was careful to minimize associations with civil war, as the Roman people had already suffered through many years of civil conflict and Octavian could risk losing support if he declared war on a [[Roman citizenship|fellow citizen]]."</ref> The legal argument for war was based less on Cleopatra's territorial acquisitions, with former Roman territories ruled by her children with Antony, and more on the fact that she was providing military support to a private citizen now that Antony's triumviral authority had expired.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=136–137}}

{{multiple image
| image1 = Cleopatra VII tetradrachm Syria mint.jpg
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| image2 = Cleopatra VII tetradrachm Ascalon mint.jpg
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| footer = Left: A silver [[tetradrachm]] of Cleopatra minted at [[Seleucia Pieria]], Syria{{pb}}Right: A silver tetradrachm of Cleopatra minted at [[Ascalon]], Israel
}}

Antony and Cleopatra had a larger fleet than Octavian, but the crews of Antony and Cleopatra's navy were not all well-trained, some of them perhaps from merchant vessels, whereas Octavian had a fully professional force.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=137, 139}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=30}} Antony wanted to cross the [[Adriatic Sea]] and blockade Octavian at either Tarentum or Brundisium,{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|pp=303–304}} but Cleopatra, concerned primarily with defending Egypt, overrode the decision to attack Italy directly.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=137}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=30}} Antony and Cleopatra set up their winter headquarters at [[Patrai]] in Greece, and by the spring of 31 BC they had moved to Actium, on the southern side of the [[Ambracian Gulf]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=137}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|pp=303–304}}

Cleopatra and Antony had the support of various allied kings, but Cleopatra had already been in conflict with Herod, and an earthquake in Judea provided him with an excuse to be absent from the campaign.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=137–138}} They also lost the support of Malichus I, which would prove to have strategic consequences.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=138}} Antony and Cleopatra lost several skirmishes against Octavian around Actium during the summer of 31 BC, while defections to Octavian's camp continued, including Antony's long-time companion Dellius{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=138}} and the allied kings [[Amyntas of Galatia]] and [[List of rulers of the Paphlagonia|Deiotaros of Paphlagonia]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=138}} While some in Antony's camp suggested abandoning the naval conflict to retreat inland, Cleopatra urged for a naval confrontation, to keep Octavian's fleet away from Egypt.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=139}}

On 2 September 31 BC the naval forces of Octavian, led by [[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa]], met those of Antony and Cleopatra at the [[Battle of Actium]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=139}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|pp=303–304}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxii, 30}} Cleopatra, aboard her flagship, the ''Antonias'', commanded 60 ships at the mouth of the Ambracian Gulf, at the rear of the fleet, in what was likely a move by Antony's officers to marginalize her during the battle.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=139}} Antony had ordered that their ships should have sails on board for a better chance to pursue or flee from the enemy, which Cleopatra, ever concerned about defending Egypt, used to swiftly move through the area of major combat in a strategic withdrawal to the [[Peloponnese]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=139–140}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=304}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=30–31}}

Burstein writes that partisan Roman writers would later accuse Cleopatra of cowardly deserting Antony, but their original intention of keeping their sails on board may have been to break the blockade and salvage as much of their fleet as possible.{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=30–31}} Antony followed Cleopatra and boarded her ship, identified by its [[Tyrian purple|distinctive purple]] sails, as the two escaped the battle and headed for [[Tainaron]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=139–140}} Antony reportedly avoided Cleopatra during this three-day voyage, until her ladies in waiting at Tainaron urged him to speak with her.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=140}} The Battle of Actium raged on without Cleopatra and Antony until the morning of 3{{nbsp}}September, and was followed by massive defections of officers, troops, and allied kings to Octavian's side.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=140}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=304}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxii–xxiii, 30–31}}