Editing Claudius (section)

==Emperor==
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 | image1 = Aureus of emperor Claudius.jpg
 | caption1 = ''[[Aureus]]'' struck at the [[Lugdunum]] (Lyon) mint, AD 41. The reverse commemorates the "reception of the emperor" (''imperator receptus'') at the Praetorian Camp and the protection the [[Praetorian Guard]] afforded him in the days following the assassination of [[Caligula]]. Issued over a number of years in both gold and silver, these type of coins were struck to serve as part of the annual military payments Claudius had promised the Guard in return for their role in raising him to the throne. Caption: TI. CLAVD. CAESAR AVG. P. M., TR. P. / IMPER. RECEPT.
 | image2 = Claudius RIC 111.jpg
 | caption2 = This ''[[denarius]]'' emphasizes Claudius' [[clemency]] after Caligula's murder. The depiction of the goddess [[Pax-Nemesis]], representing subdued vengeance, would be used by many later emperors; she is depicted holding a [[Caduceus]] over a serpent. Caption: TI. CLAVDIVS CAESAR AVG. P. M. TR. P. IMP. P. P. / CONSTANTIAE AVGVSTI. The letters "S C" mean ''[[senatus consultum]]'' ('decree of the senate').
}}
Claudius took several steps to legitimize his rule against potential usurpers, most of them emphasizing his place within the [[Julio-Claudian dynasty|Julio-Claudian family]]. He adopted the name "Caesar" as a [[cognomen]], as the name still carried great weight with the populace. To do so, he dropped the cognomen "Nero", which he had adopted as ''pater familias'' of the Claudii Nerones when his brother Germanicus was adopted. As Pharaoh of Egypt, Claudius adopted the royal titulary ''Tiberios Klaudios, [[Autokrator]] Heqaheqau Meryasetptah, Kanakht Djediakhshuemakhet'' ("Tiberius Claudius, Emperor and ruler of rulers, beloved of Isis and Ptah, the strong bull of the stable moon on the horizon").<ref>{{cite web |url=https://pharaoh.se/roman-emperor/Claudius |title=Claudius |access-date=12 March 2018 |website=The Royal Titulary of Ancient Egypt}}</ref>

While Claudius had never been formally adopted either by Augustus or his successors, he was nevertheless the grandson of Augustus's sister Octavia, and so he felt that he had the right of family. He also adopted the name "Augustus" as the two previous emperors had done at their accessions. He kept the honorific "Germanicus" to display the connection with his heroic brother. He deified his paternal grandmother Livia to highlight her position as wife of the divine Augustus. Claudius frequently used the term "filius Drusi" (son of Drusus) in his titles, to remind the people of his legendary father and lay claim to his reputation.{{sfn|Levick|2015|p=51}}

[[Pliny the Elder]] noted, according to the 1938 [[Loeb Classical Library]] translation by Harris Rackham, "...&nbsp;many people do not allow any gems in a signet-ring, and seal with the gold itself; this was a fashion invented when Claudius Cæsar was emperor."{{sfn|Pliny the Elder|loc=[https://www.loebclassics.com/view/pliny_elder-natural_history/1938/pb_LCL394.21.xml Book 33,6 ]}}

===Senate===
Because of the circumstances of his accession, Claudius took great pains to please the [[Roman Senate|Senate]]. During regular sessions, the Emperor sat among the Senate body, speaking in turn. When introducing a law, he sat on a bench between the consuls in his position as holder of the power of [[Tribune]], (the Emperor could not officially serve as a Tribune of the Plebes since he was a [[Patrician (ancient Rome)|patrician]], but this was a power taken by previous rulers, which he continued). He refused to accept all his predecessors' titles (including [[Imperator]]) at the beginning of his reign, preferring to earn them in due course. He allowed the Senate to issue its own bronze coinage for the first time since Augustus. He also restored the peaceful Imperial provinces of [[Macedonia (Roman province)|Macedonia]] and [[Achaea (Roman province)|Achaea]] as [[senatorial provinces]].{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=Claudius 25.3}}{{sfn|Cassius Dio|loc=60.24}}

Claudius set about remodeling the Senate into a more efficient, representative body. He chided the senators about their reluctance to debate bills introduced by himself, as noted in the fragments of a surviving speech:

{{blockquote|If you accept these proposals, Conscript Fathers, say so at once and simply, in accordance with your convictions. If you do not accept them, find alternatives, but do so here and now; or if you wish to take time for consideration, take it, provided you do not forget that you must be ready to pronounce your opinion whenever you may be summoned to meet. It ill befits the dignity of the Senate that the consul designate should repeat the phrases of the consuls word for word as his opinion, and that every one else should merely say 'I approve', and that then, after leaving, the assembly should announce 'We debated'.<ref>English translation of Berlin papyrus by W.D. Hogarth, in {{harvnb|Momigliano|1934}}.</ref>}}

In 47, he assumed the office of ''[[Roman censor|censor]]'' with [[Lucius Vitellius]], which had been allowed to lapse for some time. He struck out the names of many senators and ''equites'' who no longer met qualifications, but showed respect by allowing them to resign in advance. At the same time, he sought to admit to the senate eligible men from the provinces. The [[Lyon Tablet]] preserves his speech on the admittance of Gallic senators, in which he addresses the Senate with reverence but also with criticism for their disdain of these men. He even joked about how the Senate had admitted members from beyond [[Gallia Narbonensis]] ([[Lyons]]), i.e. himself.{{Citation needed|date=April 2025}}  He also increased the number of patricians by adding new families to the dwindling number of noble lines. Here he followed the precedent of [[Lucius Junius Brutus]] and [[Julius Caesar]].

Nevertheless, many in the Senate remained hostile to Claudius, and many plots were made on his life. This hostility carried over into the historical accounts. As a result, Claudius reduced the Senate's power for the sake of efficiency. The administration of Ostia was turned over to an Imperial [[Promagistrate|procurator]] after construction of the port. Administration of many of the empire's financial concerns was turned over to Imperial appointees and freedmen. This led to further resentment and suggestions that these same freedmen were ruling the Emperor.

===Secretariat and centralization of powers===
Claudius was hardly the first emperor to use [[Freedman|freedmen]] to help with the day-to-day running of the Empire. He has however become famous for the new extents at which he made use of such men in the administration of the government, forced by the centralization of the powers of the ''princeps'' and not wanting free-born magistrates to serve under him as if they were not peers.

The secretariat was divided into bureaus, with each being placed under the leadership of one freedman. [[Tiberius Claudius Narcissus|Narcissus]] was the secretary of correspondence. [[Pallas (freedman)|Pallas]] became the secretary of the treasury. [[Gaius Julius Callistus|Callistus]] became secretary of justice. There was a fourth bureau for miscellaneous issues, which was put under [[Polybius (freedman)|Polybius]] until his execution for treason. The freedmen could also officially speak for the Emperor, as when Narcissus addressed the troops in Claudius's stead before the [[Roman conquest of Britain|conquest of Britain]].<ref name="Tac">{{harvnb|Tacitus|loc=XII 65}}. Seneca ''[[s:Of Consolation: To Polybius|Ad Polybium]]''.</ref>

Since these were important positions, the senators were aghast at their being placed in the hands of former slaves and "well-known [[eunuch]]s".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Scholz|first=Piotr O.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KikEAQAAIAAJ|title=Eunuchs and Castrati: A Cultural History|date=2001|publisher=Markus Wiener Publishers|isbn=978-1-55876-200-8|location=|page=119|language=en}}</ref> If freedmen had total control of money, letters and law, it seemed it would not be hard for them to manipulate the Emperor. This is exactly the accusation put forth by ancient sources. However, these same sources admit that the freedmen were loyal to Claudius.<ref name="Tac"/>

He had shown himself to be similarly appreciative of their help, giving them due credit for policies which they advised; but punished them with just force if they showed treacherous inclinations, as was the case of Polybius and Pallas's brother, [[Antonius Felix|Felix]]. There is no evidence that the character of Claudius's policies and edicts changed with the rise and fall of the various freedmen, suggesting that he was firmly in control throughout.

Regardless of the extent of their political power, the freedmen did manage to amass wealth through their positions. Pliny the Elder describes several of them as being richer than [[Crassus]], the richest man of the [[Roman Republic|Republican era]].{{sfn|Pliny the Elder|loc=XXXIII xlvii 133–137}}

===Expansion of the Empire===
[[File:Head of Claudius or Nero BM 1965,1201.1.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.2|Bronze head of Claudius found in the [[River Alde]] at [[Rendham]], near [[Saxmundham]], Suffolk ([[British Museum]]). Potentially looted from the [[Temple of Claudius, Colchester|Temple of Claudius]] in [[Camulodunum|Colonia Victricensis]] (now [[Colchester]]) during the [[Boudican revolt]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/pe_prb/b/bronze_head_of_claudius.aspx|title= Head of the Emperor Claudius|publisher=British Museum}}</ref>]]
Claudius conducted a census in 48 that found 5,984,072 (adult male) Roman citizens{{sfn|Scramuzza|1940|loc=Chap. 7, p. 142}} (women, children, slaves, and free adult males without Roman citizenship were not counted), an increase of around a million since the census conducted at Augustus's death. He had helped increase this number through the foundation of Roman colonies that were granted blanket [[Roman citizenship|citizenship]]. These colonies were often made out of existing communities, especially those with elites who could rally the populace to the Roman cause. Several colonies were placed in new provinces or on the border of the Empire to secure Roman holdings as quickly as possible.

Additionally under Claudius, the Empire underwent its first major territorial expansion since the reign of Augustus. The provinces of [[Thrace]], [[Noricum]], [[Lycia]], and [[Judaea (Roman province)|Judea]] were [[annexation|annexed]] (or put under direct rule) under various circumstances during his term. The annexation of [[Mauretania]], begun under Caligula, was completed after the defeat of rebel forces, as well as the official division of the former client kingdom into two Imperial provinces.{{sfn|Pliny the Elder|loc=5.1–5.2}}{{sfn|Cassius Dio|loc=60.8, 60.9}}

====The British Campaign====
{{See also|Roman conquest of Britain}}
The most far-reaching conquest however was that of Britannia:{{sfn|Scramuzza|1940|loc=chapter 9}} In 43, Claudius sent [[Aulus Plautius]] with four [[Roman legion|legions]] to Britain (''Britannia'') after an appeal from an ousted tribal ally. Britain was an attractive target for Rome because of its mines and the potential of slave labor, as well as being a haven for [[Gaul|Gallic]] rebels. Claudius himself traveled to the island after the completion of initial offensives, bringing with him reinforcements and elephants. The Roman ''[[Colonia (Roman)|colonia]]'' of ''Colonia Claudia Victricensis'' was established as the provincial capital of the newly established [[Roman Britain|province of Britannia]] at [[Camulodunum]], where a large [[Temple of Claudius, Colchester|temple was dedicated in his honour]].

He left Britain after 16 days, but remained in the provinces for some time. The Senate granted him a [[Roman triumph|triumph]] for his efforts. Only members of the Imperial family were allowed such honours, but Claudius subsequently lifted this restriction for some of his conquering generals. He was granted the honorific "Britannicus" but only accepted it on behalf of his son, never using the title himself. When the British general [[Caractacus]] was captured in 50, Claudius granted him clemency. Caractacus lived out his days on land provided by the Roman state, an unusual end for an enemy commander.

===Public works===
[[File:Porta Maggiore 030106.JPG|thumb|The [[Porta Maggiore]] in Rome: remains of aqueducts [[Aqua Claudia]] and [[Aqua Anio Novus]]]]
Claudius embarked on many public works throughout his reign, both in the capital and in the provinces. He built or finished two [[Aqueduct (Roman)|aqueducts]], the [[Aqua Claudia]], begun by Caligula, and the [[Aqua Anio Novus]].<ref>Gaius Tranquillus Suetonius, Graves, R., & Grant, M. (2006). ''The Twelve Caesars'' (p. 190). Penguin.

"Claudius also completed a task begun by Gaius: he brought cool and abundant springs called the Caerulean and the Curtian or Albudignan, as well as the New Anio, into Rome;..."</ref> These entered the city in 52 and met at the [[Porta Maggiore]]. He also restored a third, the [[Aqua Virgo]].

He paid special attention to transportation. Throughout Italy and the provinces he built roads and canals. Among these was a large canal leading from the [[Rhine]] to the sea, as well as [[Via Claudia Augusta|a road from Italy to Germany]] – both begun by his father, [[Nero Claudius Drusus|Drusus]]. Closer to Rome, he built a navigable canal on the [[Tiber]], leading to [[Portus]], his new port just north of [[Ostia Antica (archaeological site)|Ostia]]. This port was constructed in a semicircle with two [[Mole (architecture)|moles]] and a lighthouse at its mouth, reducing flooding in Rome.

The port at Ostia was part of Claudius's solution to the constant grain shortages that occurred in winter, after the Roman shipping season. The other part of his solution was to [[Insurance|insure]] the ships of grain merchants who were willing to risk travelling to Egypt in the off-season. He also granted their sailors special privileges, including citizenship and exemption from the [[Lex Papia Poppaea]], a law that regulated marriage. In addition, he repealed the taxes that Caligula had instituted on food, and further reduced taxes on communities suffering drought or [[famine]].

The last part of Claudius's plan to avoid famine was to increase the amount of arable land in Italy. This was to be achieved by draining the [[Fucine lake]], also making the nearby river navigable year-round.{{sfn|Tacitus|loc=XII, 57}}<ref>Gaius Tranquillus Suetonius, Graves, R., & Grant, M. (2006). ''The Twelve Caesars'' (p. 190). Penguin.</ref> A serious famine is mentioned in the [[book of Acts]] as taking place during Claudius' reign, and had been prophesied by a Christian called [[Agabus]] while visiting [[Antioch]].<ref>Acts 11:28 KJV https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page%3AKJV_1772_Oxford_Edition%2C_vol._2.djvu/370</ref>

A tunnel was dug through the lake bed, but the plan was a failure. The tunnel was crooked and not large enough to carry the water, which caused it to back up when opened. The resultant flood washed out a large gladiatorial exhibition held to commemorate the opening, causing Claudius to run for his life along with the other spectators. The draining of the lake continued to present a problem well into the Middle Ages. It was finally achieved by the Prince [[Torlonia]] in the 19th century, producing over {{convert|160000|acre|km2}} of new arable land;{{sfn|Scramuzza|1940|loc=chapter 9, pp. 173–174}} he expanded the [[Tunnels of Claudius|Claudian tunnel]] to three times its original size.

===Religious reforms===
[[File:Bust of the Roman Emperor Claudius, 37-64 CE. Marble. From Acerra near Formia, Italy. Altes Museum, Berlin.jpg|thumb|upright|Portrait of Claudius, [[Altes Museum]], Berlin]]
Claudius, as the author of a treatise on Augustus's religious reforms, thought himself to be in a good position to institute some of his own. He had strong opinions about the proper form for state religion. He refused the request of Alexandrian Greeks to dedicate a temple to his divinity, saying that only gods may choose new gods; he restored lost days to festivals and got rid of many extraneous celebrations added by Caligula. He also re-established old observances and archaic language.

Claudius was concerned with the spread of eastern mysteries within the city and searched for more Roman replacements. He emphasized the [[Eleusinian Mysteries]], which had been practiced by so many during the Republic. He expelled foreign astrologers, and at the same time rehabilitated the old Roman soothsayers (known as [[haruspices]]) as a replacement. He was especially hard on [[Druidism]], because of its incompatibility with the Roman state religion and its [[Proselytism|proselytizing]] activities.{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=Claudius 25}}

===Judicial and legislative affairs===
Claudius personally judged many of the legal cases tried during his reign. Ancient historians have many complaints about this, stating that his judgments were variable and sometimes did not follow the law.{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=Claudius 15}}{{sfn|Cassius Dio|loc=61, 33}} He was also easily swayed. Nevertheless, Claudius paid detailed attention to the operation of the judicial system. He extended the summer court session, as well as the winter term, by shortening the traditional breaks. Claudius also made a law requiring plaintiffs to remain in the city while their cases were pending, as defendants had previously been required to do. These measures had the effect of clearing out the docket. The minimum age for jurors was also raised to 25 to ensure a more experienced jury pool.{{sfn|Scramuzza|1940|loc=chapter 6}}

Claudius also settled disputes in the provinces. He freed the island of [[Rhodes]] from Roman rule for their good faith and exempted Ilium ([[Troy#Classical Ilium (Ilion)|Troy]]) from taxes. Early in his reign, the [[Greeks]] and [[Jews of Alexandria]] each sent him embassies after riots broke out between the two communities. This resulted in the famous "Letter to the Alexandrians", which reaffirmed Jewish rights in the city but forbade them to move in more families en masse. According to [[Josephus]], he then reaffirmed the rights and freedoms of all the [[History of the Jews in the Roman Empire|Jews in the Empire]].{{sfn|Josephus|loc=''Ant. Iud.'' XIX.5.3 (287)}} However, Claudius also [[Claudius' expulsion of Jews from Rome|expelled Jews from the city of Rome]], following disturbances allegedly instigated by [[Christianity in the 1st century|Christians]]. This expulsion is attested to in [[Acts of the Apostles]] ([[Acts 18:2|18:2]]), and by Roman historians Suetonius and [[Cassius Dio]] along with the fifth-century Christian author [[Paulus Orosius]].<ref name=Reisner13>[[Rainer Riesner]] "Pauline Chronology" in Stephen Westerholm ''The Blackwell Companion to Paul'' (May 16, 2011) {{ISBN|1405188448}} pp.13-14</ref><ref name=Cradle110 >Andreas J. Köstenberger, L. Scott Kellum, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=g-MG9sFLAz0C&q=claudius The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament]'' (2009) {{ISBN|978-0-8054-4365-3}} p. 110, 400</ref>

One of Claudius's investigators discovered that many old Roman citizens based in the city of Tridentum (modern [[Trento]]) were not in fact citizens.{{sfn|Scramuzza|1940|loc=chapter 7, p. 129}} The Emperor issued a declaration, contained in the ''[[Tabula clesiana]]'', that they would be allowed to hold citizenship from then on, since to strip them of their status would cause major problems. However, in individual cases, Claudius punished the false assumption of citizenship harshly, making it a capital offense. Similarly, any freedmen found to be laying false claim to membership of the [[Roman equestrian order]] were to have their property confiscated and selling into slavery, in the words of Suetonius, "such as were ungrateful and a cause of complaint to their patrons".{{sfn|Scramuzza|1940|loc=chapter 7}}{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=Claudius 29}}

Numerous edicts were issued throughout Claudius's reign. These were on a number of topics, everything from medical advice to moral judgments. A famous medical example is one promoting [[Taxus baccata|yew]] juice as a cure for [[snakebite]].{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=Claudius 16}} Suetonius wrote that he is even said to have thought of an edict allowing public flatulence for good health.{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=Claudius 32}} One of the more famous edicts concerned the status of sick slaves. Masters had been abandoning ailing slaves at the [[Temple of Asclepius, Rome|temple of Aesculapius]] on [[Tiber Island]] to die instead of providing them with medical assistance and care, and then reclaiming them if they lived. Claudius ruled that slaves who were thus abandoned and recovered after such treatment would be free. Furthermore, masters who chose to kill slaves rather than take care of them were liable to be charged with murder.{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=Claudius 29}}

===Public games and entertainments===
According to Suetonius, Claudius was extraordinarily fond of games. He is said to have risen with the crowd after gladiatorial matches and given unrestrained praise to the fighters.{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=Claudius 12}} Claudius also presided over many new and original events. Soon after coming into power he instituted games to be held in honor of his father on the latter's birthday;{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=Claudius 11}} annual games were also held in honor of his accession, and took place at the Praetorian camp where Claudius had first been proclaimed Emperor.{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=Claudius 21}}

Claudius organized a performance of the [[Secular Games]], marking the 800th anniversary of the [[founding of Rome]]. Augustus had performed the same games less than a century prior. Augustus's excuse was that the interval for the games was 110 years, not 100, but his date actually did not qualify under either reasoning.{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=Claudius 21}} Claudius also presented staged naval battles to mark the attempted draining of the [[Fucine Lake]], as well as many other public games and shows.

At Ostia, in front of a crowd of spectators, Claudius fought an [[orca]] which was trapped in the harbour. The event was witnessed by Pliny the Elder:

{{blockquote|A killer whale was actually seen in the harbour of Ostia in battle with the Emperor Claudius; it had come at the time when he was engaged in completing the structure of the harbour, being tempted by the wreck of a cargo of hides imported from Gaul, and in glutting itself for a number of days had furrowed a hollow in the shallow bottom and had been banked up with sand by the waves so high that it was quite unable to turn round, and while it was pursuing its food which was driven forward to the shore by the waves its back projected far above the water like a capsized boat. Caesar gave orders for a barrier of nets to be stretched between the mouths of the harbour and setting out in person with the praetorian cohorts afforded a show to the Roman public, the soldiery hurling lances from the vessels against the creatures when they leapt up alongside, and we saw one of the boats sunk from being filled with water owing to a beast's snorting.{{sfn|Pliny the Elder|loc=Book IX, 14–15}}}}

Claudius also restored and adorned many public venues in Rome. At the [[Circus Maximus]], the turning posts and starting stalls were replaced in marble and embellished, and an embankment was probably added to prevent flooding of the track.{{sfn|Humphrey|1986|pp=100–101}} Claudius also reinforced or extended the seating rules that reserved front seating at the Circus for senators. He rebuilt [[Pompey's Theatre]] after it had been destroyed by fire, organising special fights at the re-dedication, which he observed from a special platform in the orchestra box.{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=Claudius 21}}

=== Plots and coup attempts ===
Several coup attempts were made during Claudius's reign, resulting in the deaths of many senators. [[Appius Silanus]] was executed early in Claudius's reign under questionable circumstances.{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=Claudius 29}} Shortly after this, a large rebellion was undertaken by the Senator [[Lucius Annius Vinicianus|Vinicianus]] and [[Lucius Arruntius Camillus Scribonianus|Scribonianus]] - governor of [[Dalmatia (Roman province)|Dalmatia]] - and gained quite a few senatorial supporters. It ultimately failed because of the reluctance of Scribonianus' troops, which led to the suicide of the main conspirators.

Many other senators tried different conspiracies and were condemned. Claudius's son-in-law [[Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (husband of Claudia Antonia)|Pompeius Magnus]] was executed for his part in a conspiracy with his father [[Marcus Licinius Crassus Frugi (consul 27)|Crassus Frugi]]. Another plot involved the consulars [[Quintus Futius Lusius Saturninus|Lusius Saturninus]], [[Cornelius Lupus]], and Pompeius Pedo.

In 46, [[Gaius Asinius Gallus Saloninus#Family|Asinius Gallus]], grandson of [[Gaius Asinius Pollio (consul 40 BC)|Asinius Pollio]], and [[Titus Statilius Taurus Corvinus]] were exiled for a plot hatched with several of Claudius's own freedmen. [[Valerius Asiaticus]] was executed without public trial for unknown reasons. Ancient sources say the charge was [[adultery]], and that Claudius was tricked into issuing the punishment. However, Claudius singles out Asiaticus for special damnation in his speech on the Gauls, which dates over a year later, suggesting that the charge must have been much more serious.

Asiaticus had been a claimant to the throne in the chaos following Caligula's death and a co-consul with Titus Statilius Taurus Corvinus. Most of these conspiracies took place before Claudius's term as [[Roman censor|Censor]], and may have induced him to review the Senatorial rolls. The conspiracy of [[Gaius Silius]] in the year after his Censorship, 48, is detailed in book 11 of Tacitus' Annals. This section of Tacitus' history narrates the alleged conspiracy of Claudius's third wife, [[Messalina]]. Suetonius states that a total of 35 senators and 300 knights were executed for offenses during Claudius's reign.{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=Claudius 29}}