Editing Biodefense (section)

===Planning and response===
Planning may involve the training human resources specialist and development of biological identification systems. Until recently in the United States, most biological defense strategies have been geared to protecting soldiers on the battlefield rather than ordinary people in cities. Financial cutbacks have limited the tracking of disease outbreaks. Some outbreaks, such as food poisoning due to ''[[Escherichia coli|E. coli]]'' or ''[[Salmonella]]'', could be of either natural or deliberate origin.

'''Human Resource Training Programs'''

To date, several endangered countries have designed various training programs at their universities to train specialized personnel to deal with biological threats(for example: George Mason University Biodefense PhD program (USA)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://schar.gmu.edu/news-and-events/latest-news|title = Latest News}}</ref> or Biodefense Strategic Studies PhD program designated by Dr Reza Aghanouri(Iran)<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.magiran.com/article/1554729|title=If we backed down on nuclear energy, they would come to nanotechnology tomorrow|date=2008-01-14|language=Persian}}</ref>). These programs are designed to prepare students and officers to serve as scholars and professionals in the fields of biodefense and biosecurity. These programs integrates knowledge of natural and man-made biological threats with the skills to develop and analyze policies and strategies for enhancing biosecurity. Other areas of biodefense, including nonproliferation, intelligence and threat assessment, and medical and public health preparedness are integral parts of these programs.

'''Preparedness'''

Biological agents are relatively easy to obtain by terrorists and are becoming more threatening in the U.S., and laboratories are working on advanced detection systems to provide early warning, identify [[contamination|contaminated areas]] and populations at risk, and to facilitate prompt treatment. Methods for predicting the use of biological agents in urban areas as well as assessing the area for the hazards associated with a biological attack are being established in major cities. In addition, [[forensic]] technologies are working on identifying biological agents, their geographical origins and/or their initial son. Efforts include decontamination technologies to restore facilities without causing additional environmental concerns.

Early detection and rapid response to bioterrorism depend on close cooperation between [[public health]] authorities and law enforcement; however, such cooperation is currently lacking. National detection assets and vaccine stockpiles are not useful if local and state officials do not have access to them.<ref>{{citation|last=Bernett|first=Brian C.|title=US Biodefense and Homeland Security: Toward Detection and Attribution|url=http://www.ccc.nps.navy.mil/research/theses/bernett06.pdf|access-date=2009-05-24|date=December 2006|publisher=Naval Postgraduate School|location=Monterey, California, United States|page=21|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080229164557/http://www.ccc.nps.navy.mil/research/theses/bernett06.pdf|archive-date=2008-02-29}}</ref>

'''United States strategy'''{{Main|National Biodefense Strategy}}
In October 2022, the [[Presidency of Joe Biden|Biden Administration]] published the "National Biodefense Strategy and Implementation Plan for Countering Biological Threats, Enhancing Pandemic Preparedness, and Achieving Global Health."<ref name=":12">{{Cite book |url=https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/National-Biodefense-Strategy-and-Implementation-Plan-Final.pdf |title=National Biodefense Strategy and Implementation Plan for Countering Biological Threats, Enhancing Pandemic Preparedness, and Achieving Global Health |date=October 2022 |publisher=White House}}</ref> It updates the [[First presidency of Donald Trump|Presidency of Donald Trump]]'s 2018 National Biodefense Strategy.<ref name=":2">National Biodefense Strategy (8 September 2018). White House, National Security Council. [https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/National-Biodefense-Strategy.pdf White House website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120221449/https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/National-Biodefense-Strategy.pdf|date=2021-01-20}} Retrieved 20 March 2020.</ref>

The U.S. government had a comprehensive defense strategy against bioterror attacks in 2004, when then-President George W. Bush signed a Homeland Security Presidential Directive 10.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CPRT-110HPRT39618/pdf/CPRT-110HPRT39618.pdf|title=Homeland Security Presidential Directive - 10|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office|year=2004|pages=57–65}}</ref> The directive laid out the country's 21st Century biodefense system and assigned various tasks to federal agencies that would prevent, protect and mitigate biological attacks against our homeland and global interests. Until 2018, however, the federal government did not have a comprehensive biodefense strategy.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://homelandprepnews.com/biological-threats/19645-rands-gerstein-u-s-needs-biodefense-strategy-protect-terror-threats/|title=RAND's Gerstein: U.S. needs biodefense strategy to protect against terror threats|last=Rozens|first=Tracy|date=2016-09-02|newspaper=Homeland Preparedness News|language=en-US|access-date=2016-12-02}}</ref>

'''Biosurveillance'''

In 1999, the [[University of Pittsburgh]]'s Center for [[Biomedical]] Informatics deployed the first automated bioterrorism detection system, called [[Real-Time Outbreak Disease Surveillance|RODS (Real-Time Outbreak Disease Surveillance)]]. RODS is designed to draw collect data from many data sources and use them to perform signal detection, that is, to detect a possible bioterrorism event at the earliest possible moment. RODS, and other systems like it, collect data from sources including clinic data, laboratory data, and data from over-the-counter drug sales.<ref name="WangerMRoleOfClinicalInformationSystems">{{citation|last=Wagner|first=Michael M.|author2=Espino, Jeremy|title=Healthcare Information Management Systems|edition=3|year=2004|publisher=Springer-Verlag|location=New York|pages=513–539|chapter=The role of clinical information systems in public health surveillance|display-authors=etal}}</ref><ref name="WangerMAvailabilityAndComparativeValueOfData">{{citation|last=Wagner|first=Michael M.|author2=Aryel, Ron|title=Availability and Comparative Value of Data Elements Required for an Effective Bioterrorism Detection System|url=http://rods.health.pitt.edu/LIBRARY/dato2AHRQInterimRpt112801.pdf|access-date=2009-05-22|date=2001-11-28|publisher=Real-time Outbreak and Disease Surveillance Laboratory|display-authors=etal|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110303223152/http://rods.health.pitt.edu/LIBRARY/dato2AHRQInterimRpt112801.pdf|archive-date=2011-03-03}}</ref> In 2000, Michael Wagner, the codirector of the RODS laboratory, and [[Ron Aryel]], a subcontractor, conceived the idea of obtaining live data feeds from "non-traditional" (non-health-care) data sources. The RODS laboratory's first efforts eventually led to the establishment of the National Retail Data Monitor, a system which collects data from 20,000 retail locations nationwide.<ref name="WangerMRoleOfClinicalInformationSystems" />

On February 5, 2002, [[George W. Bush]] visited the RODS laboratory and used it as a model for a [[USD|$]]300 million spending proposal to equip all 50 states with biosurveillance systems. In a speech delivered at the nearby [[Masonic temple]], Bush compared the RODS system to a modern "[[DEW]]" line (referring to the Cold War ballistic missile early warning system).<ref>{{citation|last=Togyer|first=Jason|title=Pitt Magazine: Airborne Defense|url=http://www.pittmag.pitt.edu/june2002/feature1.html|access-date=2009-05-22|date=June 2002|publisher=University of Pittsburgh|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100616101219/http://www.pittmag.pitt.edu/june2002/feature1.html|archive-date=2010-06-16|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The principles and practices of biosurveillance, a new interdisciplinary science, were defined and described in the ''Handbook of Biosurveillance'', edited by Michael Wagner, Andrew Moore and Ron Aryel, and published in 2006. Biosurveillance is the science of real-time disease outbreak detection. Its principles apply to both natural and man-made epidemics (bioterrorism).

Data which potentially could assist in early detection of a bioterrorism event include many categories of information. Health-related data such as that from hospital computer systems, clinical laboratories, electronic [[health record systems]], medical examiner record-keeping systems, 911 call center computers, and veterinary medical record systems could be of help; researchers are also considering the utility of data generated by [[ranching]] and [[feedlot]] operations, food processors, [[drinking water]] systems, school attendance recording, and physiologic monitors, among others.<ref name="WangerMAvailabilityAndComparativeValueOfData" /> Intuitively, one would expect systems which collect more than one type of data to be more useful than systems which collect only one type of information (such as single-purpose laboratory or 911 call-center based systems), and be less prone to [[false alarms]], and this appears to be the case.

In [[Europe]], disease surveillance is beginning to be organized on the continent-wide scale needed to track a biological emergency. The system not only monitors infected persons, but attempts to discern the origin of the outbreak.

Researchers are experimenting with devices to detect the existence of a threat:

* Tiny [[integrated circuit|electronic chips]] that would contain living [[neuron|nerve cells]] to warn of the presence of bacterial toxins (identification of broad range toxins)
* [[Fiber-optic]] tubes lined with [[antibody|antibodies]] coupled to light-emitting molecules (identification of specific pathogens, such as anthrax, botulinum, ricin)

New research shows that ultraviolet [[avalanche photodiodes]] offer the high gain, reliability and robustness needed to detect anthrax and other bioterrorism agents in the air. The fabrication methods and device characteristics were described at the 50th Electronic Materials Conference in Santa Barbara on June 25, 2008. Details of the photodiodes were also published in the February 14, 2008 issue of the journal Electronics Letters and the November 2007 issue of the journal IEEE Photonics Technology Letters.<ref>[http://newswise.com/articles/view/541788/ Avalanche Photodiodes Target Bioterrorism Agents] Newswise, Retrieved on June 25, 2008.</ref>

The United States Department of Defense conducts global biosurveillance through several programs, including the Global Emerging Infections Surveillance and Response System.<ref>Pellerin, Cheryl. [https://www.defense.gov/News/News-Stories/id/65852/ "Global Nature of Terrorism Drives Biosurveillance."]  ''American Forces Press Service'', 27 October 2011.</ref>