Editing Bantu languages (section)

==Language structure==
Guthrie reconstructed both the phonemic inventory and the vocabulary of Proto-Bantu.<ref name=":1" />

The most prominent [[Grammar|grammatical]] characteristic of Bantu languages is the extensive use of [[affix]]es (see [[Sotho grammar]] and [[Luganda#Noun classes|Ganda noun classes]] for detailed discussions of these affixes). Each noun belongs to a [[noun class|class]], and each language may have several numbered classes, somewhat like [[grammatical gender]] in European languages. The class is indicated by a prefix that is part of the noun, as well as agreement markers on verb and qualificative roots connected with the noun. Plurality is indicated by a change of class, with a resulting change of prefix.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":4" /> All Bantu languages are [[agglutinative]].

The verb has a number of prefixes, though in the western languages these are often treated as independent words.<ref>Derek Nurse, 2008. ''Tense and aspect in Bantu'', p 70 (fn). In many of the Zone A, including [[Mbam languages|Mbam]], the verbs are clearly analytic.</ref> In [[Swahili language|Swahili]], for example, ''Kitoto kidogo kimekisoma'' (for comparison, ''Kamwana kadoko karikuverenga'' in [[Shona language]]) means 'The small child has read it [a book]'. ''kitoto'' 'child' governs the adjective prefix ''ki-'' (representing the diminutive form of the word) and the verb subject prefix ''a-''. Then comes perfect tense ''-me-'' and an object marker ''-ki-'' agreeing with implicit ''kitabu'' 'book' (from Arabic ''kitab''). Pluralizing to 'children' gives ''Vitoto vidogo vimekisoma'' (''Vana vadoko varikuverenga'' in Shona), and [[plural]]izing to 'books' (''vitabu'') gives ''vitoto vidogo vimevisoma''.<ref name=":6" />

Bantu words are typically made up of [[Syllable#Coda|open syllable]]s of the type CV (consonant-vowel) with most languages having syllables exclusively of this type. The [[Bushong language]] recorded by [[Jan Vansina|Vansina]], however, has final consonants,<ref>Vansina, J. ''Esquisse de Grammaire Bushong''. Commission de Linguistique Africaine, Tervuren, Belgique, 1959.</ref> while slurring of the final syllable (though written) is reported as common among the [[Tonga (Nyasa) language|Tonga]] of Malawi.<ref>Turner, Rev. Wm. Y., ''Tumbuka–Tonga$1–$2 $3ictionEnglish Dictionary''  Hetherwick Press, Blantyre, Malawi 1952. pages i–ii.</ref> The morphological shape of Bantu words is typically CV, VCV, CVCV, VCVCV, etc.; that is, any combination of CV (with possibly a V- syllable at the start). In other words, a strong claim for this language family is that almost all words end in a vowel, precisely because closed syllables (CVC) are not permissible in most of the documented languages, as far as is understood.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":7" />

This tendency to avoid [[consonant cluster]]s in some positions is important when words are imported from [[English language|English]] or other non-Bantu languages. An example from [[Chewa language|Chewa]]: the word "school", borrowed from English, and then transformed to fit the sound patterns of this language, is ''sukulu''. That is, ''sk-'' has been broken up by inserting an [[epenthesis|epenthetic]] ''-u-''; ''-u'' has also been added at the end of the word. Another example is ''buledi'' for "bread". Similar effects are seen in [[loanword]]s for other non-African CV languages like [[Japanese language|Japanese]]. However, a clustering of sounds at the beginning of a syllable can be readily observed in such languages as Shona,<ref>Doke, Clement M., ''A Comparative Study in Shona Phonetics'' University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 1931.</ref> and the [[Makua languages]].<ref>''Relatório do I Seminário sobre a Padronização da Ortografia de Línguas Moçambicanas''  NELIMO, Universidade Eduardo Mondlane. 1989.</ref>

With few exceptions, such as [[Swahili language|Kiswahili]] and [[Tooro language|Rutooro]], Bantu languages are [[Tone (linguistics)|tonal]] and have two to four register tones.

===Reduplication===
[[Reduplication]] is a common morphological phenomenon in Bantu languages and is usually used to indicate frequency or intensity of the action signalled by the (unreduplicated) verb stem.<ref name=":8">Abdulaziz Lodhi, "[https://web.archive.org/web/20090325021837/http://www.african.gu.se/aa/pdfs/aa02004.pdf Verbal extensions in Bantu (the case of Swahili and Nyamwezi)]". ''Africa & Asia,'' 2002, 2:4–26, Göteborg University</ref>

*Example: in Swahili, ''piga'' means "strike", ''pigapiga'' means "strike repeatedly".

Well-known words and names that have reduplication include:
*[[South Africa national football team|Bafana Bafana]], a football team
*[[Zambia national football team|Chipolopolo]], a football team
*[[Eric Djemba-Djemba]], a footballer
*[[Lomana LuaLua]], a footballer

Repetition emphasizes the repeated word in the context that it is used. For instance, "Mwenda pole hajikwai," means "He who goes slowly doesn't trip," while, "Pole pole ndio mwendo," means "A slow but steady pace wins the race." The latter repeats "pole" to emphasize the consistency of slowness of the pace.

As another example, "Haraka haraka" would mean "hurrying just for the sake of hurrying" (reckless hurry), as in "Njoo! Haraka haraka" [come here! Hurry, hurry].

In contrast, there are some words in some of the languages in which reduplication has the opposite meaning. It usually denotes short durations, or lower intensity of the action, and also means a few repetitions or a little bit more.

*Example 1: In [[Tsonga language|(Xi)Tsonga]] and [[Shona language|(Chi)Shona]], ''famba'' means "walk" while ''famba-famba'' means "walk around".
*Example 2: in [[Zulu language|isiZulu]] and [[Swazi language|(si)Swati]] ''hamba'' means "go", ''hambahamba'' means "go a little bit, but not much".
*Example 3: in both of the above languages ''shaya'' means "strike", ''shayashaya'' means "strike a few more times lightly, but not heavy strikes and not too many times".
*Example 4: In [[ChiShona|Shona]] ''{{wikt-lang|sn|kwenya}}'' means "scratch", ''Kwenyakwenya'' means "scratch excessively or a lot".
*Example 5: In [[Luhya language|Luhya]] ''cheenda'' means "walk",'' cheendacheenda'' means "take a walk but not far off", as in buying time before something is ready or a situation or time is right.

===Noun class===
The following is a list of nominal classes in Bantu languages:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bantu-languages.com/fr/classes.html|title=Les classes nominales en bantu|access-date=2005-04-26|archive-date=2017-11-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171101213948/http://www.bantu-languages.com/fr/classes.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" | Singular classes
! colspan="2" | Plural classes
! rowspan="2" | Typical meaning(s)
|-
! Number !! Prefix
! Number !! Prefix
|-
| 1 || ''*mʊ-''
| 2 || ''*ba-''
| Humans, animate
|-
| 3 || ''*mu-''
| 4 || ''*mi-''
| Plants, inanimate
|-
| 5 || ''*dɪ-''
| 6 || ''*ma-''
| Various; class 6 for liquids ([[mass noun]]s)
|-
| 7 || ''*ki-''
| 8 || ''*bɪ-''
| Various, diminutives, manner/way/language
|-
| 9 || ''*n-''
| 10 || ''*n-''
| Animals, inanimate
|-
| 11 || ''*du-''
| colspan="2" |
| Abstract nouns
|-
| 12 || ''*ka-''
| 13 || ''*tu-''
| Diminutives
|-
| 14 || ''*bu-''
| colspan="2" rowspan="6" |
| Abstract nouns
|-
| 15 || ''*ku-''
| Infinitives
|-
| 16 || ''*pa-''
| Locatives (proximal, exact)
|-
| 17 || ''*ku-''
| Locatives (distal, approximate)
|-
| 18 || ''*mu-''
| Locatives (interior)
|-
| 19 || ''*pɪ-''
| Diminutives
|}

===Syntax===
Virtually all Bantu languages have a [[subject–verb–object]] word order, with some exceptions, such as 
the [[Nen language (Cameroon)|Nen language]], which has a [[subject–object–verb]] word order.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lqIUDAAAQBAJ&dq=bantu+language+SOV+word+order&pg=PA70|title = Tense and Aspect in Bantu|isbn = 978-0-19-923929-0|last1 = Nurse|first1 = Derek|date = 3 July 2008| publisher=OUP Oxford }}</ref>