Editing Bacteriophage (section)

=== Other ===
====Food industry====
Phages have increasingly been used to safen food products and to forestall [[spoilage bacteria]].<ref name="OSullivan-et-al-2019">{{cite journal | vauthors = O'Sullivan L, Bolton D, McAuliffe O, Coffey A | title = Bacteriophages in Food Applications: From Foe to Friend | journal = Annual Review of Food Science and Technology | volume = 10 | issue = 1 | pages = 151–172 | date = March 2019 | pmid = 30633564 | doi = 10.1146/annurev-food-032818-121747 | publisher = [[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] | s2cid = 58620015 }}</ref> Since 2006, the [[United States Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) and [[United States Department of Agriculture]] (USDA) have approved several bacteriophage products. LMP-102 (Intralytix) was approved for treating ready-to-eat (RTE) poultry and meat products. In that same year, the FDA approved LISTEX (developed and produced by [[Micreos (company)|Micreos]]) using bacteriophages on cheese to kill ''[[Listeria monocytogenes]]'' bacteria, in order to give them [[generally recognized as safe]] (GRAS) status.<ref>U.S. FDA/CFSAN: Agency Response Letter, GRAS Notice No. 000198</ref> In July 2007, the same bacteriophage were approved for use on all food products.<ref>(U.S. FDA/CFSAN: Agency Response Letter, GRAS Notice No. 000218)</ref> In 2011 USDA confirmed that LISTEX is a clean label processing aid and is included in USDA.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.fsis.usda.gov/oppde/rdad/fsisdirectives/7120.1.pdf | title = FSIS Directive 7120: Safe and Suitable Ingredients Used in the Production of Meat, Poultry, and Egg Products | publisher = United States Department of Agriculture | work = Food Safety and Inspection Service | location = Washington, DC | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111018071043/http://www.fsis.usda.gov/OPPDE/rdad/FSISDirectives/7120.1.pdf | archive-date = 18 October 2011 }}</ref> Research in the field of food safety is continuing to see if lytic phages are a viable option to control other food-borne pathogens in various food products.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Khan FM, Chen JH, Zhang R, Liu B | title = A comprehensive review of the applications of bacteriophage-derived endolysins for foodborne bacterial pathogens and food safety: recent advances, challenges, and future perspective | journal = Frontiers in Microbiology | volume = 14 | page = 1259210 | date = 2023 | pmid = 37869651 | pmc = 10588457 | doi = 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1259210 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

====Water indicators====
Bacteriophages, including those specific to ''Escherichia coli'', have been employed as indicators of fecal contamination in water sources. Due to their shared structural and biological characteristics, coliphages can serve as proxies for viral fecal contamination and the presence of pathogenic viruses such as rotavirus, norovirus, and HAV. Research conducted on wastewater treatment systems has revealed significant disparities in the behavior of coliphages compared to fecal coliforms, demonstrating a distinct correlation with the recovery of pathogenic viruses at the treatment's conclusion. Establishing a secure discharge threshold, studies have determined that discharges below 3000 PFU/100 mL are considered safe in terms of limiting the release of pathogenic viruses.<ref>Chacón L, Barrantes K, Santamaría-Ulloa C, Solano MReyes L, Taylor LValiente C, Symonds EM, Achí R. 2020. A Somatic Coliphage Threshold Approach To Improve the Management of Activated Sludge Wastewater Treatment Plant Effluents in Resource-Limited Regions. Appl Environ Microbiol 86:e00616-20.
https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.00616-20/</ref>

====Diagnostics====
In 2011, the FDA cleared the first bacteriophage-based product for in vitro diagnostic use.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfpmn/pmn.cfm?ID=K102342 | title = FDA 510(k) Premarket Notification | publisher = U.S. Food and Drug Administration }}</ref> The KeyPath MRSA/MSSA Blood Culture Test uses a cocktail of bacteriophage to detect ''[[Staphylococcus aureus]]'' in positive blood cultures and determine [[methicillin]] resistance or susceptibility. The test returns results in about five hours, compared to two to three days for standard microbial identification and susceptibility test methods. It was the first accelerated antibiotic-susceptibility test approved by the FDA.<ref>{{cite journal | url = http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm254512.htm | title = FDA clears first test to quickly diagnose and distinguish MRSA and MSSA | publisher = U.S. Food and Drug Administration | date = 6 May 2011 | doi = 10.1128/aem.00616-20 | pmid = 32591380 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150217175558/http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm254512.htm | archive-date = 17 February 2015 | journal = Applied and Environmental Microbiology | volume = 86 | issue = 17 | pmc = 7440787 | vauthors = Chacón L, Barrantes K, Santamaría-Ulloa C, Solano M, Reyes L, Taylor L, Valiente C, Symonds EM, Achí R | hdl = 10669/82145 | access-date = 17 February 2015 | url-status = bot: unknown }}</ref>

====Counteracting bioweapons and toxins====
Government agencies in the West have for several years been looking to [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] and the former [[Soviet Union]] for help with exploiting phages for counteracting bioweapons and toxins, such as [[anthrax]] and [[botulism]].<ref>{{cite web | vauthors = Vaisman D | date = 25 May 2007 | url = https://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/25/world/americas/25iht-institute.4.5869943.html | title = Studying anthrax in a Soviet-era lab – with Western funding | work = The New York Times }}</ref> Developments are continuing among research groups in the U.S. Other uses include spray application in horticulture for protecting plants and vegetable produce from decay and the spread of bacterial disease. Other applications for bacteriophages are as biocides for environmental surfaces, e.g., in hospitals, and as preventative treatments for catheters and medical devices before use in clinical settings. The technology for phages to be applied to dry surfaces, e.g., uniforms, curtains, or even sutures for surgery now exists. Clinical trials reported in ''Clinical Otolaryngology''<ref name="Wright2009"/> show success in veterinary treatment of pet dogs with [[otitis]].

====Bacterium sensing and identification====
The [[sensing of phage-triggered ion cascades]] (SEPTIC) bacterium sensing and identification method uses the ion emission and its dynamics during phage infection and offers high specificity and speed for detection.<ref name="jbpc">{{cite journal |url=http://www.ece.tamu.edu/%7Enoise/research_files/King_et_al_JBPC.pdf | vauthors = Dobozi-King M, Seo S, Kim JU, Young R, Cheng M, Kish LB |title=Rapid detection and identification of bacteria: SEnsing of Phage-Triggered Ion Cascade (SEPTIC) |journal=Journal of Biological Physics and Chemistry |volume=5 |year=2005 |pages=3–7 |doi=10.4024/1050501.jbpc.05.01 |access-date=19 December 2016 |archive-date=26 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180926123955/http://www.ece.tamu.edu/%7Enoise/research_files/King_et_al_JBPC.pdf }}</ref>

====Phage display====
[[Phage display]] is a different use of phages involving a library of phages with a variable peptide linked to a surface protein. Each phage genome encodes the variant of the protein displayed on its surface (hence the name), providing a link between the peptide variant and its encoding gene. Variant phages from the library may be selected through their binding affinity to an immobilized molecule (e.g., botulism toxin) to neutralize it. The bound, selected phages can be multiplied by reinfecting a susceptible bacterial strain, thus allowing them to retrieve the peptides encoded in them for further study.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Smith GP, Petrenko VA | title = Phage Display | journal = Chemical Reviews | volume = 97 | issue = 2 | pages = 391–410 | date = April 1997 | pmid = 11848876 | doi = 10.1021/cr960065d }}</ref>

====Antimicrobial drug discovery====
Phage proteins often have antimicrobial activity and may serve as leads for [[peptidomimetic]]s, i.e. drugs that mimic peptides.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Liu J, Dehbi M, Moeck G, Arhin F, Bauda P, Bergeron D, Callejo M, Ferretti V, Ha N, Kwan T, McCarty J, Srikumar R, Williams D, Wu JJ, Gros P, Pelletier J, DuBow M | title = Antimicrobial drug discovery through bacteriophage genomics | journal = Nature Biotechnology | volume = 22 | issue = 2 | pages = 185–191 | date = February 2004 | pmid = 14716317 | doi = 10.1038/nbt932 | s2cid = 9905115 }}</ref> [[Phage-ligand technology]] makes use of phage proteins for various applications, such as binding of bacteria and bacterial components (e.g. [[endotoxin]]) and lysis of bacteria.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.hyglos.de/en/technology/technological-background.html | title = Technological background Phage-ligand technology | work = bioMérieux }}</ref>

====Basic research====
Bacteriophages are important [[model organisms]] for studying principles of [[evolution]] and [[ecology]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Keen EC | title = Tradeoffs in bacteriophage life histories | journal = Bacteriophage | volume = 4 | issue = 1 | pages = e28365 | date = January 2014 | pmid = 24616839 | pmc = 3942329 | doi = 10.4161/bact.28365 }}</ref>