Editing Artificial intelligence (section)

=== Natural language processing ===
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[[Natural language processing]] (NLP)<ref>[[Natural language processing]] (NLP): {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|loc=chpt. 23–24}}, {{Harvtxt|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=91–104}}, {{Harvtxt|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=591–632}}</ref> allows programs to read, write and communicate in human languages such as [[English (language)|English]]. Specific problems include [[speech recognition]], [[speech synthesis]], [[machine translation]], [[information extraction]], [[information retrieval]] and [[question answering]].<ref>Subproblems of [[Natural language processing|NLP]]: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|pp=849–850}}</ref>

Early work, based on [[Noam Chomsky]]'s [[generative grammar]] and [[semantic network]]s, had difficulty with [[word-sense disambiguation]]{{Efn|See {{Section link|AI winter|Machine translation and the ALPAC report of 1966
}}}} unless restricted to small domains called "[[blocks world|micro-worlds]]" (due to the common sense knowledge problem<ref name="Breadth of commonsense knowledge"/>). [[Margaret Masterman]] believed that it was meaning and not grammar that was the key to understanding languages, and that [[thesauri]] and not dictionaries should be the basis of computational language structure.

Modern deep learning techniques for NLP include [[word embedding]] (representing words, typically as [[Vector space|vectors]] encoding their meaning),{{Sfnp|Russell|Norvig|2021|pp=856–858}} [[transformer (machine learning model)|transformer]]s (a deep learning architecture using an [[Attention (machine learning)|attention]] mechanism),{{Sfnp|Dickson|2022}} and others.<ref>Modern statistical and deep learning approaches to [[Natural language processing|NLP]]: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|loc=chpt. 24}}, {{Harvtxt|Cambria|White|2014}}</ref> In 2019, [[generative pre-trained transformer]] (or "GPT") language models began to generate coherent text,{{Sfnp|Vincent|2019}}{{Sfnp|Russell|Norvig|2021|pp=875–878}} and by 2023, these models were able to get human-level scores on the [[bar exam]], [[SAT]] test, [[GRE]] test, and many other real-world applications.{{Sfnp|Bushwick|2023}}