Editing Almond (section)

==Cultivation==

[[File:Baburnama illustration.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Persian miniature]] depiction of the almond harvest at [[Konibodom|Qand-i Badam]], [[Fergana Valley]] (16th&nbsp;century)<ref>{{cite web|last=Bhawani |url=http://warfare.atspace.eu/Moghul/Baburnama/Harvesting_of_the_almond_crop_at_Qand-i_Badam.htm |title=Harvesting of the almond crop at Qand-i Badam |date=1590s |work=Baburnama}}</ref>]]
[[File:Almondtrees.jpg|thumb|A grove of almond trees]]
[[File:AlmondShakerbeforeafter.jpg|thumb|An almond shaker before and during a tree's harvest]]

Almonds were one of the earliest domesticated [[fruit trees]], due to "the ability of the grower to raise attractive almonds from seed.<ref name=ladizinsky99 /> Thus, in spite of the fact that this plant does not lend itself to propagation from suckers or from cuttings, it could have been domesticated even before the introduction of [[grafting]]".<ref name=zohary/> Domesticated almonds appear in the [[Early Bronze Age]] (3000–2000 BC), such as the archaeological sites of [[Numeira]] (Jordan),<ref name=ladizinsky99/> or possibly earlier. Another well-known archaeological example of the almond is the fruit found in [[Tutankhamun]]'s tomb in Egypt (c. 1325 BC), probably imported from the Levant.<ref name=zohary/> An article on almond tree cultivation in Spain is brought down in [[Ibn al-'Awwam]]'s 12th-century agricultural work, ''Book on [[Agriculture in India|Agriculture]]''.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ibn al-'Awwam|first=Yaḥyá|author-link=Ibn al-'Awwam|title=Le livre de l'agriculture d'Ibn-al-Awam (kitab-al-felahah) |year=1864|location=Paris|publisher=A. Franck|translator=J.-J. Clement-Mullet |pages=260–263 (ch. 7 – Article 20)|url=https://archive.org/details/lelivredelagric00algoog/page/n14/mode/2up |language=fr|oclc=780050566}} (pp. [https://archive.org/details/lelivredelagric00algoog/page/n368/mode/2up 260]–263 (Article XX)</ref>

Of the European countries that the [[Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh]] reported as cultivating almonds, Germany<ref>{{cite web |url=http://193.62.154.38/cgi-bin/nph-readbtree.pl/feout?FAMILY_XREF=&GENUS_XREF=Prunus&SPECIES_XREF=dulcis&TAXON_NAME_XREF=&RANK= |title=''Flora Europaea'' Search Results |access-date=17 July 2008 |publisher=[[Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh]] |archive-date=11 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511164917/http://193.62.154.38/cgi-bin/nph-readbtree.pl/feout?FAMILY_XREF=&GENUS_XREF=Prunus&SPECIES_XREF=dulcis&TAXON_NAME_XREF=&RANK= |url-status=dead }}</ref> is the northernmost, though the domesticated form can be found as far north as Iceland.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibiblio.org/pfaf/cgi-bin/arr_html?Prunus+dulcis |title=''Prunus dulcis'' |access-date=17 July 2008 |publisher=[[Plants for a Future]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070819002033/http://www.ibiblio.org/pfaf/cgi-bin/arr_html?Prunus+dulcis |archive-date=19 August 2007 }}</ref>

===Varieties===
Almond trees are small to medium-sized but commercial cultivars can be [[grafted]] onto a different root-stock to produce smaller trees. Varieties include:
* {{lang|fr|italics=unset|Nonpareil}} – originates in the 1800s. A large tree that produces large, smooth, thin-shelled almonds with 60–65% edible kernel per nut. Requires pollination from other almond varieties for good nut production.<ref name=ARS/>
* {{lang|it|italics=unset|Tuono}} – originates in Italy. Has thicker, hairier shells with only 32% of edible kernel per nut. The thicker shell gives some protection from pests such as the [[Amyelois transitella|navel orangeworm]]. Does not require pollination by other almond varieties.<ref name=ARS/>
* Mariana – used as a rootstock to result in smaller trees

===Breeding===
[[Breeding programme]]s have found the [[#high shell-seal trait|high shell-seal trait]].<ref name="Robens-et-al-2000">{{cite conference | url=http://www.ars.usda.gov/pacific-west-area/albany-ca/wrrc/ftdp/docs/aflatoxin-elimination-workshop-proceedings/ | conference=Aflatoxin/Fumonisin Workshop 2000 | date=25–27 October 2000 | location=[[Yosemite]], California, USA | page=17 | last1=Robens | first1=Jane | last2=Cary | first2=Jeffrey W. | last3=Campbell | first3=Bruce C. | title=Introduction}}</ref>

=== Pollination ===
The most widely planted varieties of almond are [[self-incompatible]]; hence these trees require pollen from a tree with different genetic characters to produce seeds. Almond orchards therefore must grow mixtures of almond varieties. In addition, the pollen is transferred from flower to flower by insects; therefore commercial growers must ensure there are enough insects to perform this task.<ref name="van Wyk 2019">{{cite book |last1=van Wyk |first1=Ben-Erik |title=Food plants of the world |date=2019 |publisher=CABI |isbn=9781789241303 |page=342 |edition=2nd}}</ref> The large scale of almond production in the U.S. creates a significant problem of providing enough pollinating insects. Additional pollinating insects are therefore brought to the trees. The [[pollination]] of [[Almonds in California|California's almonds]] is the largest annual [[Pollination management|managed pollination]] event in the world, with over 1&nbsp;million hives (nearly half of all [[beehive (beekeeping)|beehives]] in the US) being brought to the almond orchards each February.<ref name=eb/><ref name=bloom/>

Much of the supply of bees is managed by pollination brokers, who contract with migratory [[beekeeper]]s from at least 49 states for the event. This business was heavily affected by [[colony collapse disorder]] at the turn of the 21st century, causing a nationwide shortage of honey bees and increasing [[Pollination#Economics of pollination|the price]] of [[insect pollination]]. To partially protect almond growers from these costs, researchers at the [[Agricultural Research Service]], part of the [[United States Department of Agriculture]] (USDA), developed [[self-pollinating]] almond trees that combine this character with quality characters such as a flavour and yield.<ref name=ARS>{{cite web |author=Alfredo Flores |url=http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/pr/2010/100406.htm |title=ARS Scientists Develop Self-pollinating Almond Trees |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101017050714/http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/pr/2010/100406.htm |archive-date=17 October 2010 |publisher=[[United States Department of Agriculture|USDA]] [[Agricultural Research Service]] |date=6 April 2010}}</ref> Self-pollinating almond varieties exist, but they lack some commercial characters. However, through natural hybridisation between different almond varieties, a new variety that was self-pollinating with a high yield of commercial quality nuts was produced.

=== Diseases ===
{{Main|List of almond diseases}}

Almond trees can be attacked by an array of damaging microbes, fungal pathogens, plant viruses, and bacteria.<ref name="PlantVillage">{{cite web | title=Almond – Diseases and Pests, Description, Uses, Propagation | website=[[PlantVillage]] | url=http://plantvillage.psu.edu/topics/almond/infos | access-date=2019-12-11}}</ref>

=== Pests ===
Pavement ants (''[[Tetramorium caespitum]]''), southern fire ants (''[[Solenopsis xyloni]]''), and thief ants (''[[Solenopsis molesta]]'') are [[seed predator]]s.<ref name="PlantVillage" /> ''Bryobia rubrioculus'' mites are most known for their damage to this crop.<ref name="Bryobia-rubrioculus-UCANR">{{cite web | url=http://www.ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/almond/Brown-Mite/ | publisher=[[University of California Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources|UC Agriculture and Natural Resources]] (UC ANR) | title=Brown Mite / Almond / Agriculture: Pest Management Guidelines / UC Statewide IPM Program (UC IPM)}}</ref>

=== Sustainability ===
Almond production in California is concentrated mainly in the [[Central Valley (California)|Central Valley]],<ref name="bi">{{Cite news|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/amount-of-water-needed-to-grow-one-almond-orange-tomato-2015-4|title=Chart shows how some of your favorite foods could be making California's drought worse|date=8 April 2015|author1=Brodwin E |author2=Lee S|work=Business Insider|access-date=17 April 2017|language=en}}</ref> where the mild climate, rich soil, abundant sunshine and water supply make for ideal growing conditions. Due to the [[Droughts in California|persistent droughts in California]] in the early 21st century, it became more difficult to raise almonds in a sustainable manner.<ref name="npr">{{cite web |author1=Richard Gonzalez |title=How Almonds Became A Scapegoat For California's Drought |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2015/04/16/399958203/how-almonds-became-a-scapegoat-for-californias-drought |publisher=US National Public Radio |access-date=16 April 2019 |date=16 April 2015}}</ref><ref name="bloom">{{cite news |author1=Alan Bjerga |author2=Donna Cohen |author3=Cindy Hoffman |title=California Almonds Are Back After Four Years of Brutal Drought |newspaper=Bloomberg.com |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/2018-thirst-for-almonds/ |publisher=Bloomberg |access-date=16 April 2019}}</ref> The issue is complex because of the high amount of water needed to produce almonds: a single almond requires roughly {{convert|1.1|usgal|impgal l|abbr=off}} of water to grow properly.<ref name=bi/><ref name=npr/><ref>{{Cite web|last1=Mekonnen|first1=M. M.|last2=Hoekstra|first2=A. Y.|title=The green, blue and grey water footprint of crops and derived crop products|url=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/15/1577/2011/hess-15-1577-2011.pdf|url-status=live|access-date=2021-06-19|website=Copernicus|publisher=Twente Water Centre, University of Twente|publication-place=Enschede, The Netherlands|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210123145145/https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/15/1577/2011/hess-15-1577-2011.pdf|archive-date=23 January 2021}}</ref> Regulations related to water supplies are changing so some growers have destroyed their current almond orchards to replace with either younger trees or a different crop such as [[pistachio]] that needs less water.<ref name="AtlasObscura2021">{{cite web |title=Why Are Almond Growers Uprooting Their Orchards? |url=https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/uprooting-almond-orchard |website=Atlas Obscura |date=2 July 2021 |access-date=3 July 2021}}</ref>
[[File:Almond tree in blossom (Israel).jpg|thumb|Almond tree with blossoming flowers, [[Valley of Elah]], Israel]]
Sustainability strategies implemented by the [[Almond Board of California]] and almond farmers include:<ref name=bloom/><ref name="abc2018">{{cite web |title=Annual report: Growing Good – Almond Sustainability 2018 |url=https://newsroom.almonds.com/sites/default/files/pdf_file/Growing%20Good%202018.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://newsroom.almonds.com/sites/default/files/pdf_file/Growing%20Good%202018.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |publisher=Almond Board of California |access-date=16 April 2019 |date=2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Almond industry forerunner of future farm practices, sustainability program internationally recognized |url=https://www.farmprogress.com/tree-nuts/almond-industry-forerunner-future-farm-practices-sustainability-program-internationally |publisher=Western FarmPress |access-date=16 April 2019 |date=6 March 2018}}</ref>
* tree and [[soil health]], and other farming practices
* minimizing dust production during the harvest
* [[bee]] health
* [[irrigation]] guidelines for farmers
* food safety
* use of waste [[biomass]] as coproducts with a goal to achieve [[zero waste]]
* use of [[solar energy]] during processing
* job development
* support of [[scientific research]] to investigate potential health benefits of consuming almonds
* international education about sustainability practices