Editing Alfred the Great (section)

== King at war ==
=== Early struggles ===
In April 871, King Æthelred died and Alfred acceded to the throne of Wessex and the burden of its defence, even though Æthelred left two under-age sons, [[Æthelhelm]] and [[Æthelwold of Wessex|Æthelwold]]. This was in accordance with the agreement that Æthelred and Alfred had made earlier that year in an assembly at an unidentified place called Swinbeorg. The brothers had agreed that whichever of them outlived the other would inherit the personal property that King Æthelwulf had left jointly to his sons in his will. The deceased's sons would receive only whatever property and riches their father had settled upon them and whatever additional lands their uncle had acquired. The unstated premise was that the surviving brother would be king. Given the Danish invasion and the youth of his nephews, Alfred's accession probably went uncontested.{{Sfn|Abels|1998|p=135}}

While he was busy with the burial ceremonies for his brother, the Danes defeated the Saxon army in his absence at an unnamed spot and then again in his presence at [[Wilton, Wiltshire|Wilton]] in May.{{Sfn|Plummer|1911|pp=582–584}} The defeat at Wilton smashed any remaining hope that Alfred could drive the invaders from his kingdom. Alfred was forced instead to make peace with them. Although the terms of the peace are not recorded, Bishop Asser wrote that the pagans agreed to vacate the realm and made good their promise.{{Sfn|Abels|1998|pp=140–141}}

The Viking army withdrew from Reading in the autumn of 871 to take up winter quarters in Mercian London. Although not mentioned by Asser or by the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'', Alfred probably paid the Vikings silver to leave, much as the Mercians were to do in the following year.{{Sfn|Abels|1998|pp=140–141}} [[Hoard]]s dating to the Viking occupation of London in 871/872 have been excavated at [[Croydon]], [[Gravesend]] and [[Waterloo Bridge]]. These finds hint at the cost involved in making peace with the Vikings. For the next five years, the Danes occupied other parts of England.{{Sfn|Brooks|Graham-Campbell|1986|pp=91–110}}

In 876, under Guthrum, Oscetel and Anwend, the Danes slipped past the Saxon army and attacked and occupied [[Wareham, Dorset|Wareham]] in Dorset. Alfred blockaded them but was unable to take Wareham by assault. He negotiated a peace that involved an exchange of hostages and oaths, which the Danes swore on a "holy ring" associated with the worship of [[Thor]]. The Danes broke their word, and after killing all the hostages, slipped away under cover of night to [[Exeter]] in Devon.{{Sfn|Abels|1998|pp=148–50}}

Alfred blockaded the Viking ships in Devon, and with a relief fleet having been scattered by a storm, the Danes were forced to submit. The Danes withdrew to Mercia. In January 878, the Danes made a sudden attack on [[Battle of Chippenham|Chippenham]], a royal stronghold in which Alfred had been staying over Christmas "and most of the people they killed, except the King Alfred, and he with a little band made his way by wood and swamp, and after [[Easter]] he made a fort at [[Athelney]] in the marshes of [[Somerset]], and from that fort kept fighting against the foe".{{Sfn|Giles|Ingram|1996|loc=Year 878}} Considering the fate of the Mercians' kingdom under similar Viking pressure and an analysis of charter signatories either side of the raid it has been suggested{{Sfn|Pollard|2006|p=157-169}} that Alfred may have fallen prey to a Witan coup at Chippenham rather than simply being surprised by a Viking attack. From his fort at Athelney, an island in the marshes near [[North Petherton]], Alfred was able to mount a resistance campaign, rallying the local militias from Somerset, [[Wiltshire]] and [[Hampshire]].{{Sfn|Plummer|1911|pp=582–584}} 878 was the nadir of the history of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. With all the other kingdoms having fallen to the Vikings, Wessex alone was resisting.{{Sfn|Savage|1988|p=101}}

=== Legend of burnt cake ===
Having fled to the [[Somerset Levels]], Alfred was purportedly given shelter by a peasant woman who, unaware of his identity, asked him to mind some wheaten cakes she left baking by the fire.{{Sfn|Savage|1988|p=101}}{{Sfn|Pollard|2006|p=178}}{{Sfn|Horspool|2006|p=2}} Preoccupied with the problems of his kingdom, Alfred accidentally let the cakes burn, and was roundly scolded by the woman upon her return. The first written account of the legend appears a century after Alfred's death, though it may have earlier origins in [[folklore]].{{Sfn|Horspool|2006|p=2}}

=== Counter-attack and victory ===
[[File:King Alfred's Tower, Stourhead, Somerset.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|[[King Alfred's Tower]] (1772) in [[Somerset]], on the supposed site of Egbert's Stone, the mustering place before the [[Battle of Edington]]{{Efn|The inscription reads "ALFRED THE GREAT AD 879 on this Summit Erected his Standard Against Danish Invaders To him We owe The Origin of Juries The Establishment of a Militia The Creation of a Naval Force ALFRED The Light of a Benighted Age Was a Philosopher and a Christian The Father of his People The Founder of the English MONARCHY and LIBERTY".{{Sfn|Horspool|2006|p=73}} }} ]]

In the seventh week after Easter (4–10 May 878), around [[Whitsuntide]], Alfred rode to [[Egbert's Stone]] east of [[Selwood, Somerset|Selwood]] where he was met by "all the people of Somerset and of [[Wiltshire]] and of that part of [[Hampshire]] which is on this side of the sea (that is, west of [[Southampton Water]]), and they rejoiced to see him".{{Sfn|Giles|Ingram|1996|loc=Year 878}} Alfred's emergence from his marshland stronghold was part of a carefully planned offensive that entailed raising the [[fyrd]]s of three [[shire]]s. This meant not only that the king had retained the loyalty of [[ealdormen]], royal [[High-reeve|reeves]] and king's [[thegn]]s, who were charged with levying and leading these forces, but that they had maintained their positions of authority in these localities well enough to answer his summons to war. Alfred's actions also suggest a system of scouts and messengers.{{Sfn|Lavelle|2010|pages=187–191}}

Alfred won a decisive victory in the ensuing [[Battle of Edington]] which may have been fought near [[Westbury, Wiltshire]]. He then pursued the Danes to their stronghold at [[Chippenham]] and starved them into submission. One of the terms of the surrender was that Guthrum convert to Christianity. Three weeks later, the Danish king and 29 of his chief men were baptised at Alfred's court at Aller, near Athelney, with Alfred receiving Guthrum as his spiritual son.{{Sfn|Plummer|1911|pp=582–584}}

According to Asser,
{{Blockquote|The unbinding of the [[chrisom]]{{Efn| A chrisom was the face-cloth or piece of linen laid over a child's head when he or she was baptised or christened. Originally the purpose of the chrisom-cloth was to keep the [[chrism]], a consecrated oil, from accidentally rubbing off.{{Sfn|Nares|1859|p=160}}}} on the eighth day took place at a royal estate called [[Wedmore]].|source={{Harvnb|Keynes|Lapidge|1983|loc=Ch. 56}}}}

At Wedmore, Alfred and Guthrum negotiated what some historians have called the [[Treaty of Wedmore]], but it was to be some years after the cessation of hostilities that a formal treaty was signed.{{Sfn|Horspool|2006|pages=123–124}} Under the terms of the so-called Treaty of Wedmore, the converted Guthrum was required to leave Wessex and return to East Anglia. Consequently, in 879 the Viking army left Chippenham and made its way to Cirencester.{{Sfn|Keynes|Lapidge|1983|loc=Ch. 60}} The formal [[Treaty of Alfred and Guthrum]], preserved in [[Old English]] in [[Corpus Christi College, Cambridge]] (Manuscript 383), and in a [[Latin]] compilation known as ''[[Quadripartitus]]'', was negotiated later, perhaps in 879 or 880, when King [[Ceolwulf II of Mercia]] was deposed.{{Sfn|Abels|1998|p=163}}

That treaty divided up the kingdom of Mercia. By its terms, the boundary between Alfred's and Guthrum's kingdoms was to run up the [[River Thames]] to the [[River Lea]], follow the Lea to its source (near [[Luton]]), from there extend in a straight line to [[Bedford]], and from Bedford follow the [[River Great Ouse|River Ouse]] to [[Watling Street]].{{Sfn|Attenborough|1922|pp=98–101|loc= [https://archive.org/stream/lawsofearliesten00grea#page/98/mode/2up Treaty of Alfred and Gunthrum]}}

Alfred succeeded to Ceolwulf's kingdom consisting of western Mercia, and Guthrum incorporated the eastern part of Mercia into an enlarged [[Kingdom of East Anglia]] (henceforward known as the [[Danelaw]]). By terms of the treaty, moreover, Alfred was to have control over the Mercian city of London and its mints—at least for the time being.{{Sfn|Blackburn|1998|pp=105–124}} In 825, the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' had recorded that the people of Essex, Sussex, Kent and Surrey surrendered to [[Egbert of Wessex|Egbert]], Alfred's grandfather. From then until the arrival of the [[Great Heathen Army]], Essex had formed part of Wessex. After the foundation of Danelaw, it appears that some of Essex would have been ceded to the Danes, but how much is not clear.{{Sfn|Smyth|1995|pp=303–304}}

=== 880s ===
{{Further|Londinium|Anglo-Saxon London}}

With the signing of the [[Treaty of Alfred and Guthrum]], an event most commonly held to have taken place around 880 when Guthrum's people began settling [[East Anglia]], Guthrum was neutralised as a threat.{{Sfn|Pratt|2007|p=94}} The Viking army, which had stayed at Fulham during the winter of 878–879, sailed for Ghent and was active on the continent from 879 to 892.{{Sfn|Keynes|Lapidge|1983|p=86}}{{Sfn|Keynes|Lapidge|1983|pp=250–151}}

There were local raids on the coast of Wessex throughout the 880s. In 882, Alfred fought a small sea battle against four Danish ships. Two of the ships were destroyed, and the others surrendered. This was one of four sea battles recorded in the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'', three of which involved Alfred.{{Sfn|Abels|1998|p=171}} Similar small skirmishes with independent Viking raiders would have occurred for much of the period as they had for decades.{{Sfn|Smyth|1995|pp=20–21}}

In 883, [[Pope Marinus I|Pope Marinus]] exempted the Saxon quarter in Rome from taxation, probably in return for Alfred's promise to send alms annually to Rome, which may be the origin of the medieval tax called [[Peter's Pence]]. The pope sent gifts to Alfred, including what was reputed to be a piece of the [[True Cross]].{{Sfn|Abels|1998|pp=190–91}}

After the signing of the treaty with Guthrum, Alfred was spared any large-scale conflicts for some time. Despite this relative peace, the king was forced to deal with a number of Danish raids and incursions. Among these was a raid in [[Kent]], an allied kingdom in [[South East England]], during the year 885, which was possibly the largest raid since the battles with Guthrum. Asser's account of the raid places the Danish raiders at the Saxon city of [[Rochester, Kent|Rochester]],{{Sfn|Keynes|Lapidge|1983|p=86}} where they built a temporary fortress in order to besiege the city. In response to this incursion, Alfred led an [[Anglo-Saxon]] force against the Danes who, instead of engaging the army of Wessex, fled to their beached ships and sailed to another part of Britain. The retreating Danish force supposedly left Britain the following summer.{{Sfn|Keynes|Lapidge|1983|p=87}}

Not long after the failed Danish raid in Kent, Alfred dispatched his fleet to East Anglia. The purpose of this expedition is debated, but Asser claims that it was for the sake of plunder.{{Sfn|Keynes|Lapidge|1983|p=87}} After travelling up the [[River Stour, Suffolk|River Stour]], the fleet was met by Danish vessels that numbered 13 or 16 (sources vary on the number), and a battle ensued.{{Sfn|Keynes|Lapidge|1983|p=87}} The Anglo-Saxon fleet emerged victorious, and as [[Henry of Huntingdon]] writes, "laden with spoils".{{Sfn|Henry of Huntingdon|1969|p=81}} The victorious fleet was surprised when attempting to leave the River Stour and was attacked by a Danish force at the mouth of the river. The Danish fleet defeated Alfred's fleet, which may have been weakened in the previous engagement.{{Sfn|Woodruff|1993|p=86}}

=== King of the Anglo-Saxons ===
[[File:Southwark Bridge City Plaque.JPG|thumb|upright=1.35|A plaque in the [[City of London]] noting the restoration of the Roman walled city by Alfred]]

A year later, in 886, Alfred reoccupied the city of London and set out to make it habitable again.{{Sfn|Keynes|1998|p=24}} Alfred entrusted the city to the care of his son-in-law [[Æthelred, Ealdorman of Mercia|Æthelred]], ealdorman of Mercia. Soon afterwards, Alfred restyled himself "King of the Anglo-Saxons". The restoration of [[history of London|London]] progressed through the latter half of the 880s and is believed to have revolved around a new street plan; added fortifications in addition to the existing Roman walls; and, some believe, the construction of matching fortifications on the south bank of the [[River Thames]].{{Sfn|Keynes|1998|p=23}}

This is also the period in which almost all chroniclers agree that the Saxon people of pre-unification England submitted to Alfred.{{Sfn|Pratt|2007|p=106}} In 888, Æthelred, the [[archbishop of Canterbury]], also died. One year later Guthrum, or Athelstan by his baptismal name, Alfred's former enemy and king of East Anglia, died and was buried in [[Hadleigh, Suffolk]].{{Sfn|Woodruff|1993|p=89}} Guthrum's death changed the political landscape for Alfred. The resulting power vacuum stirred other power-hungry warlords eager to take his place in the following years.

=== Viking attacks (890s) ===
After another lull, in the autumn of 892 or 893, the Danes attacked again. Finding their position in mainland Europe precarious, they crossed to England in 330 ships in two divisions. They entrenched themselves, the larger body at [[Appledore, Kent]], and the lesser under [[Hastein]], at [[Milton, Kent|Milton]], also in Kent. The invaders brought their wives and children with them, indicating a meaningful attempt at conquest and colonisation. Alfred, in 893 or 894, took up a position from which he could observe both forces.{{Sfn|Merkle|2009|p=220}}

While he was in talks with Hastein, the Danes at Appledore broke out and struck north-westwards. They were overtaken by Alfred's eldest son Edward, and were defeated at the [[Battle of Farnham]] in Surrey. They took refuge on an island at [[Thorney, Buckinghamshire|Thorney]], on the [[River Colne, Hertfordshire|River Colne]] between [[Buckinghamshire]] and [[Middlesex]], where they were blockaded and forced to give hostages and promise to leave Wessex.{{Sfn|Keynes|Lapidge|1983|pp=115–116, 286}}{{Sfn|Merkle|2009|p=220}} They then went to Essex and after suffering another defeat at [[South Benfleet|Benfleet]], joined with Hastein's force at [[Shoeburyness|Shoebury]].{{Sfn|Keynes|Lapidge|1983|pp=115–116, 286}}

Alfred had been on his way to relieve his son at Thorney when he heard that the [[Northumbria]]n and East Anglian Danes were besieging [[Exeter]] and an unnamed stronghold on the [[North Devon]] shore. Alfred at once hurried westward and raised the [[Siege of Exeter (893)|Siege of Exeter]]. The fate of the other place is not recorded.{{Sfn|Plummer|1911|p=583}}

The force under Hastein set out to march up the [[Thames Valley]], possibly with the idea of assisting their friends in the west. They were met by a large force under the three great ealdormen of [[Mercia]], Wiltshire and Somerset and forced to head off to the north-west, being finally overtaken and blockaded at [[Battle of Buttington|Buttington]]. (Some identify this with Buttington Tump at the mouth of the [[River Wye]], others with [[Buttington]] near [[Welshpool]].) An attempt to break through the English lines failed. Those who escaped retreated to Shoebury. After collecting reinforcements, they made a sudden dash across England and occupied the ruined [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] walls of [[Chester]]. The English did not attempt a winter blockade but contented themselves with destroying all the supplies in the district.{{Sfn|Plummer|1911|p=583}}

Early in 894 or 895 lack of food obliged the Danes to retire once more to Essex. At the end of the year, the Danes drew their ships up the River Thames and the [[River Lea]] and fortified themselves {{Convert|20|mi|km|spell=in}} north of London. A frontal attack on the Danish lines failed but later in the year, Alfred saw a means of obstructing the river to prevent the egress of the Danish ships. The Danes realised that they were outmanoeuvred, struck off north-westwards and wintered at [[Quatford|Cwatbridge]] near [[Bridgnorth]]. The next year, 896 (or 897), they gave up the struggle. Some retired to [[Northumbria]], some to East Anglia. Those who had no connections in England returned to the continent.{{Sfn|Plummer|1911|p=583}}