Editing Aircraft hijacking (section)

==Countermeasures==
{{See also|Airport security}}As a result of the large number of U.S.–Cuba hijackings in the late 1960s to early 1970s, international airports introduced screening technology such as metal detectors, [[X-ray]] machines and [[explosive detection]] tools. In the U.S., these rules were enforced starting from January 1973<ref name=":6" /> and were eventually copied around the world. These security measures made hijacking a "higher-risk proposition" and deterred criminals in later decades.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ibm.com/blogs/systems/a-brief-history-of-airline-security-hijackings-and-metal-detectors/|title=A brief history of airline security, hijackings and metal detectors|date=2019-04-24|website=IBM IT Infrastructure Blog|language=en-US|access-date=2019-07-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190706110312/https://www.ibm.com/blogs/systems/a-brief-history-of-airline-security-hijackings-and-metal-detectors/|archive-date=2019-07-06|url-status=live}}</ref> Until September 2001, the [[Federal Aviation Administration|FAA]] set and enforced a "layered" system of defense: hijacking intelligence, passenger pre-screening, checkpoint screening and on-board security. The idea was that if one layer were later to fail, another would be able stop a hijacker from boarding a plane. However, the [[9/11 Commission]] found that this layered approach was flawed and unsuitable to prevent the September 11 attacks.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report_Ch3.htm|title=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States|website=govinfo.library.unt.edu|access-date=2019-07-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190526072202/http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report_Ch3.htm|archive-date=2019-05-26|url-status=live}}</ref> The U.S. [[Transportation Security Administration]] has since strengthened this approach, with a greater emphasis on intelligence sharing.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol50no3/airport_security_5.htm|title=Intelligence and Airport Security — Central Intelligence Agency|website=www.cia.gov|access-date=2019-07-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190706201149/https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol50no3/airport_security_5.htm|archive-date=2019-07-06|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tsa.gov/news/testimony/2018/09/05/keeping-our-skies-secure-oversight-tsa|title=Keeping Our Skies Secure: Oversight of the TSA|date=2018-09-05|website=Transportation Security Administration|language=en|access-date=2019-07-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190706201203/https://www.tsa.gov/news/testimony/2018/09/05/keeping-our-skies-secure-oversight-tsa|archive-date=2019-07-06|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== On-board security ===
[[File:Security simulation at Swartkops Air Force Base1.jpg|thumb|Hijacking assault simulation by South African special forces]]

In the history of hijackings, most incidents involved planes being forced to land at a certain destination with demands. As a result, commercial airliners adopted a "total compliance" rule which taught pilots and [[Flight attendant|cabin crew]] to comply with the hijackers' demands.<ref name=":8" /> Crews advise passengers to sit quietly to increase their chances of survival. The ultimate goal is to land the plane safely and let the [[security forces]] handle the situation. The [[Federal Aviation Administration|FAA]] suggested that the longer a hijacking persisted, the more likely it would end peacefully with the hijackers reaching their goal.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report_Ch3.htm|title=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States|access-date=2008-08-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080927230023/http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report_Ch3.htm|archive-date=2008-09-27|url-status=live}}</ref> Although total compliance is still relevant, the events of September 11 changed this paradigm as this technique cannot prevent a murder-suicide hijacking.

After the [[September 11 attacks]], it became evident that each hijacking situation needs to be evaluated on a case-by-case basis. Cabin crew, now aware of the severe consequences, have a greater responsibility for maintaining control of their aircraft. Most airlines also give crew members training in self-defense tactics.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2015/02/26/opinion/abend-terror-hijack-threat/index.html|title=Pilot: Here's what keeps you safe on a plane (Opinion) - CNN|last=Les Abend|work=CNN|access-date=2019-07-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190706114524/https://edition.cnn.com/2015/02/26/opinion/abend-terror-hijack-threat/index.html|archive-date=2019-07-06|url-status=live}}</ref> Ever since the 1970s, crew are taught to be vigilant for suspicious behaviour. For example, passengers who have no carry-on luggage, or are standing next to the cockpit door with fidgety movements. There have been various incidents when crew and passengers intervened to prevent attacks: on December 22, 2001, [[Richard Reid (shoe bomber)|Richard Reid]] attempted to ignite explosives on [[2001 failed shoe bomb attempt|American Airlines Flight 63]]. In 2009, on [[Northwest Flight 253]], [[Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab]] attempted to detonate explosives sewn into his underwear. In 2012, the attempted hijacking of [[Tianjin Airlines Flight 7554]] was stopped when cabin crew placed a trolley in-front of the cockpit door and asked passengers for help.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2012-07/07/content_15556586.htm|title=Hotan airport security staff cleared{{!}}Society{{!}}chinadaily.com.cn|website=usa.chinadaily.com.cn|access-date=2019-07-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190706114526/http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2012-07/07/content_15556586.htm|archive-date=2019-07-06|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Cockpit security ===
As early as 1964, the [[Federal Aviation Administration|FAA]] required cockpit doors on commercial aircraft be kept locked during flight.<ref name=":2" /> In 2002, [[United States Congress|U.S. Congress]] passed the Arming Pilots Against Terrorism Act, allowing pilots at U.S. airlines to carry guns in the cockpit. Since 2003, these pilots are known as [[Federal Flight Deck Officer]]s. It is estimated that one in 10 of the 125,000 commercial pilots are trained and armed.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-43377461|title=The US airline pilots trained to shoot hijackers|last=Amos|first=Owen|date=2018-03-26|access-date=2019-07-06|language=en-GB|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190706124236/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-43377461|archive-date=2019-07-06|url-status=live}}</ref> Also in 2002, aircraft manufacturers such as [[Airbus]] introduced a reinforced cockpit door which is resistant to gunfire and forced entry.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/germanwings-crash-airbus-video-reveals-how-reinforced-cockpit-doors-work-10135414.html|title=Airbus video reveals exactly how reinforced cockpit doors work|date=2015-03-26|website=The Independent|language=en|access-date=2019-07-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190706140054/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/germanwings-crash-airbus-video-reveals-how-reinforced-cockpit-doors-work-10135414.html|archive-date=2019-07-06|url-status=live}}</ref> Shortly afterwards, the FAA required operators of more than 6,000 aircraft to install tougher cockpit doors by April 9, 2003.<ref name=":7" /> Rules were also tightened to restrict cockpit access and make it easier for pilots to lock the doors.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://avalon.law.yale.edu/sept11/faa_001.asp|title=The Avalon Project : FAA Sets New Standards for Cockpit Doors; January 11, 2002|website=avalon.law.yale.edu|access-date=2019-07-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190706110315/https://avalon.law.yale.edu/sept11/faa_001.asp|archive-date=July 6, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-32070528|title=How are cockpit doors locked?|last=Why|first=Who, What|date=2015-03-26|access-date=2019-07-06|language=en-GB|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190706140621/https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-32070528|archive-date=2019-07-06|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2015, [[Germanwings Flight 9525]] was seized by the co-pilot and deliberately crashed, while the captain was out. The captain was unable to re-enter the cockpit, because the airline had already reinforced the cockpit door. The [[European Aviation Safety Agency]] issued a recommendation for airlines to ensure that at least two people, one pilot and a member of cabin crew, occupy the cockpit during flight.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.easa.europa.eu/newsroom-and-events/news/easa-recommends-minimum-two-crew-cockpit|title=EASA recommends minimum two crew in the cockpit {{!}}|website=EASA|date=27 March 2015 |language=en|access-date=2019-07-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190706145050/https://www.easa.europa.eu/newsroom-and-events/news/easa-recommends-minimum-two-crew-cockpit|archive-date=2019-07-06|url-status=live}}</ref> The FAA in the United States enforce a similar rule.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kiro7.com/news/faa-cockpit-pilot-requirements/43326524|title=Q & A: FAA cockpit, pilot requirements|last=EndPlay|date=2015-03-26|website=KIRO|language=en-US|access-date=2019-07-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190706145040/https://www.kiro7.com/news/faa-cockpit-pilot-requirements/43326524|archive-date=2019-07-06|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Air marshal service ===
{{See also|Sky marshal}}
Some countries operate a marshal service, which puts members of [[law enforcement]] on high-risk flights based on intelligence.<ref name=":7" /> Their role is to keep passengers safe, by preventing hijackings and other criminal acts committed on a plane. [[Federal Air Marshal Service|Federal marshals]] in the U.S. are required to identify themselves before boarding a plane; marshals of other countries often are not.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/travel/flights/2014/08/07/5-myths-about-air-marshals/13724331/|title=Five myths about air marshals|website=USA TODAY|language=en|access-date=2019-07-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190706134542/https://www.usatoday.com/story/travel/flights/2014/08/07/5-myths-about-air-marshals/13724331/|archive-date=2019-07-06|url-status=live}}</ref> According to the [[Congressional Research Service]], the budget for the U.S. Federal Air Marshal Service was US$719 million in 2007.<ref name=":7" /> Marshals often sit as regular passengers, at the front of the plane to allow observation of the cockpit. Despite the expansion of the marshal service, they cannot be on every plane, and they rarely face a real threat on a flight. Critics have questioned the need for them.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2018/05/17/tsa-air-marshal-training-terrorism-planes/601236002/|title=Terror in the skies: TSA's air marshals are 'last line of defense', but is the program really needed?|website=USA TODAY|language=en|access-date=2019-07-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190706134542/https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2018/05/17/tsa-air-marshal-training-terrorism-planes/601236002/|archive-date=2019-07-06|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Air traffic control===
There is no generic or set of rules for handling a hijacking situation. [[Air traffic controller]]s are expected to exercise their best judgement and expertise when dealing with the apparent consequences of an unlawful interference or hijack.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web|url=https://www.skybrary.aero/index.php/Unlawful_Interference:_Guidance_for_Controllers|title=Unlawful Interference: Guidance for Controllers - SKYbrary Aviation Safety|website=www.skybrary.aero|access-date=2019-07-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190706134547/https://www.skybrary.aero/index.php/Unlawful_Interference:_Guidance_for_Controllers|archive-date=2019-07-06|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report_Ch1.htm|title=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States|website=govinfo.library.unt.edu|access-date=2019-07-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080514052417/http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report_Ch1.htm|archive-date=2008-05-14|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.skybrary.aero/index.php/Emergency_Transponder_Codes|title=Emergency Transponder Codes - SKYbrary Aviation Safety|website=www.skybrary.aero|access-date=2019-07-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190706134543/https://www.skybrary.aero/index.php/Emergency_Transponder_Codes|archive-date=2019-07-06|url-status=live}}</ref> Depending on the jurisdiction, the controller will inform authorities, such as the military, who will escort the hijacked plane. Controllers are expected to keep communications to a minimum and clear the [[runway]] for a possible landing.<ref name=":10" />