Editing Abbot (section)

==General information==
Before the late modern era, the abbot was treated with the utmost reverence by the brethren of his house.  When he appeared either in church or chapter all present rose and bowed.  His letters were received kneeling, as were those of the pope and the king.  No monk might sit in his presence, or leave it, without his permission, reflecting the hierarchical etiquette of families and society.  The highest place was assigned to him, both in church and at table.  In the East he was commanded to eat with the other monks. In the West, the [[Rule of St Benedict]] appointed him a separate table, at which he might entertain guests and strangers.  Because this permission opened the door to luxurious living, [[Synods of Aachen (816–819)|Synods of Aachen]] decreed that the abbot should dine in the [[refectory]], and be content with the ordinary fare of the monks, unless he had to entertain a guest. These ordinances proved, however, generally ineffective to secure strictness of diet, and contemporaneous literature abounds with satirical remarks and complaints concerning the inordinate extravagance of the tables of the abbots.  When the abbot condescended to dine in the refectory, his [[chaplain]]s waited upon him with the dishes, a servant, if necessary, assisting them. When abbots dined in their own private hall, the Rule of St Benedict charged them to invite their monks to their table, provided there was room, on which occasions the guests were to abstain from quarrels, slanderous talk and idle gossiping.{{sfn|Venables|Phillips|1911}}


The ordinary attire of the abbot was according to rule to be the same as that of the monks. But by the 10th century the rule was commonly set aside, and we find frequent complaints of abbots dressing in silk, and adopting sumptuous attire.  Some even laid aside the monastic habit altogether, and assumed a secular dress. With the increase of wealth and power, abbots had lost much of their special religious character, and become great lords, chiefly distinguished from lay lords by [[clerical celibacy|celibacy]].  Thus we hear of abbots going out to hunt, with their men carrying bows and arrows; keeping horses, dogs and huntsmen; and special mention is made of an abbot of [[Leicester]] {{Citation needed|date=February 2023}}, c. 1360, who was the most skilled of all the nobility in hare hunting.  In magnificence of equipage and [[retinue]] the abbots vied with the first nobles of the realm.  They rode on mules with gilded bridles, rich saddles and housings, carrying hawks on their wrist, followed by an immense train of attendants.  The bells of the churches were rung as they passed.  They associated on equal terms with laymen of the highest distinction, and shared all their pleasures and pursuits.{{sfn|Venables|Phillips|1911}}  This rank and power was, however, often used most beneficially.  For instance, we read of [[Richard Whiting (abbot)|Richard Whiting]], the last abbot of [[Glastonbury Abbey|Glastonbury]], judicially murdered by [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]], that his house was a kind of well-ordered court, where as many as 300 sons of noblemen and gentlemen, who had been sent to him for virtuous education, had been brought up, besides others of a lesser rank, whom he fitted for the universities. His table, attendance and officers were an honour to the nation. He would entertain as many as 500 persons of rank at one time, besides relieving the poor of the vicinity twice a week. He had his country houses and fisheries, and when he travelled to attend parliament his retinue amounted to upwards of 100 persons.  The [[abbots of Cluny]] and [[Trinity Abbey, Vendôme|Vendôme]] were, by virtue of their office, [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinal]]s of the Roman church.{{sfn|Venables|Phillips|1911}}

In the process of time, the title abbot was extended to [[clergy#Catholic clergy|clerics]] who had no connection with the monastic system, as to the principal of a body of parochial clergy; and under the [[Charlemagne|Carolingians]] to the chief chaplain of the king, ''{{lang|la|Abbas Curiae}}'', or military chaplain of the emperor, ''{{lang|la|Abbas Castrensis.}}'' It even came to be adopted by purely secular officials.  Thus the chief magistrate of the republic at [[Genoa]] was called ''{{lang|la|Abbas Populi}}''.{{sfn|Venables|Phillips|1911}}

[[Lay abbot]]s (M. Lat. ''{{lang|la|defensores}}'', ''{{lang|la|abbacomites}}'', ''{{lang|la|abbates laici}}'', ''{{lang|la|abbates milites}}'', ''{{lang|la|abbates saeculares}}'' or ''{{lang|la|irreligiosi}}'', ''{{lang|la|abbatiarii}}'', or sometimes simply ''{{lang|la|abbates}}'') were the outcome of the growth of the [[Feudalism|feudal]] system from the 8th century onwards.  The practice of [[Commendation ceremony|commendation]], by which—to meet a contemporary emergency—the revenues of the community were handed over to a lay lord, in return for his protection,
early suggested to the emperors and kings the expedient of rewarding their warriors with rich abbeys held ''[[in commendam]].''{{sfn|Venables|Phillips|1911}}

During the Carolingian epoch, the custom grew up of granting these as regular heritable [[fiefdom|fiefs]] or [[benefice]]s, and by the 10th century, before the great [[Cluniac]] reform, the system was firmly established. Even the [[Saint Denis Basilica|abbey of St Denis]] was held in commendam by [[Hugh Capet]]. The example of the kings was followed by the feudal nobles, sometimes by making a temporary concession permanent, sometimes without any form of commendation whatever.  In England the abuse was rife in the 8th century, as may be gathered from the acts of the [[council of Cloveshoe]].  These lay abbacies were not merely a question of overlordship, but implied the concentration in lay hands of all the rights, immunities and jurisdiction of the foundations, i.e. the more or less complete secularization of spiritual institutions.  The lay abbot took his recognized rank in the feudal hierarchy, and was free to dispose of his fief as in the case of any other.  The [[enfeoffment]] of abbeys differed in form and degree.  Sometimes the monks were directly subject to the lay abbot; sometimes he appointed a substitute to perform the spiritual functions, known usually as [[dean (religion)|dean]] ({{lang|la|decanus}}), but also as abbot (''{{lang|la|abbas legitimus}}'', ''{{lang|la|monasticus}}'', ''{{lang|la|regularis}}'').{{sfn|Venables|Phillips|1911}}

When the great reform of the 11th century had put an end to the direct jurisdiction of the lay abbots, the honorary title of abbot continued to be held by certain of the great feudal families, as late as the 13th century and later, with the head of the community retaining the title of dean.  The connection of the lesser lay abbots with the abbeys, especially in the south of France, lasted longer; and certain feudal families retained the title of {{lang|fr|abbés chevaliers}} ({{langx|la|abbates milites}}) for centuries, together with certain rights over the abbey lands or revenues. The abuse was not confined to the West. John, [[patriarch of Antioch]] at the beginning of the 12th century, informs us that in his time most monasteries had been handed over to laymen, ''{{lang|la|beneficiarii}}'', for life, or for part of their lives, by the emperors.{{sfn|Venables|Phillips|1911}}

[[Giraldus Cambrensis]] reported (''Itinerary'', ii.iv) the common customs of lay abbots in the late 12th-century Church of Wales:
{{Blockquote|for a bad custom has prevailed amongst the clergy, of appointing the most powerful people of a parish stewards, or, rather, patrons, of their churches; who, in process of time, from a desire of gain, have usurped the whole right, appropriating to their own use the possession of all the lands, leaving only to the clergy the altars, with their tenths and oblations, and assigning even these to their sons and relations in the church. Such defenders, or rather destroyers, of the church, have caused themselves to be called abbots, and presumed to attribute to themselves a title, as well as estates, to which they have no just claim.}}

In conventual cathedrals, where the bishop occupied the place of the abbot, the functions usually devolving on the superior of the monastery were performed by a [[Prior (ecclesiastical)|prior]].