Editing Reformation (section)

== Conclusion and legacy ==
There is no universal agreement on the exact or even the approximate date the Reformation ended. Various interpretations emphasise different dates, entire periods, or argue that the Reformation never really ended.<ref>{{cite book|last=Olson |first=Roger E. |chapter-url= https://www.ministrymatters.com/all/entry/8332/is-the-protestant-reformation-over-can-the-schism-end
|date=21 August 2017|chapter=Is the Protestant Reformation Over? Can The Schism End?|title= Ministry matters
|quote=Protestant Reformation was a long process begun a century earlier by Bohemian priest John Hus and, at least according to many Protestants, is ever ongoing. “Reformed and always reforming” was the motto of many of the Reformation's leaders and remains a crucial ideal and challenge today. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120232437/https://www.ministrymatters.com/all/entry/8332/is-the-protestant-reformation-over-can-the-schism-end |archive-date= January 20, 2022 |url-status= live}}</ref> However, there are a few popular interpretations. The [[Peace of Augsburg]] in 1555 officially ended the religious struggle between the two groups and made the legal division of Christianity permanent within the [[Holy Roman Empire]], allowing rulers to choose either [[Lutheranism]] or Catholicism as the official [[Creed|confession]] of their state. It could be considered to end with the enactment of the [[Creed#Christian confessions of faith|confessions of faith]]. Other suggested ending years relate to the [[Counter-Reformation]] or the 1648 [[Peace of Westphalia]]. From one Catholic perspective, the [[Second Vatican Council]] ended the Counter-Reformation.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Wills|first=Garry|url=https://www.nybooks.com/articles/2019/11/07/changeless-catholic-church/|title=Changing the 'Changeless' Church|journal= New York Review of Books |date= 7 November 2019|access-date=14 March 2020|issn=0028-7504}}</ref>
*In the history of theology or philosophy, the Reformation era ended with the Age of Orthodoxy. The Orthodox Period, also termed the [[Template:17th-century scholasticism|Scholastic Period]], succeeded the Reformation with the 1545–63 [[Council of Trent]], the 1562 Anglican ''[[Thirty-nine Articles]]'', the 1580 ''[[Book of Concord]]'', and other [[Creed#Christian confessions of faith|confessions of faith]]. The Orthodox Era ended with the development of both [[Pietism]] and [[The enlightenment|the Enlightenment]].
* The [[Peace of Westphalia]] might be considered to be the event that ended the Reformation.<!-- According to other interpretations, the Reformation could truly be considered to have ended in the middle 18th century, as the Peace of Westphalia did not specify, nor did it mean that it concluded; that is around time the First Great Awakening (1730–1755) took place. Historians{{who |date=September 2021}} who hold this interpretation often argue that the emergence of Pietism prolonged the Reformation up to this point; -->

=== Thirty Years' War: 1618–1648 ===
[[File:Westfaelischer Friede in Muenster (Gerard Terborch 1648).jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|[[Treaty of Westphalia]] allowed [[Calvinism]] to be freely exercised, reducing the need for [[Crypto-Calvinism]]]]

The Reformation and Counter-Reformation era conflicts are termed the [[European wars of religion]]. In particular, the [[Thirty Years' War]] (1618–48) devastated much of [[Early Modern history of Germany|Germany]], killing between 25 and 40% of its population.<ref>{{Cite web |date= 2023-05-16 |title=History of Europe {{!}} Summary, Wars, Map, Ideas, & Colonialism |url= https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Europe |access-date= 2023-05-18 |website= Britannica}}</ref> The Catholic [[House of Habsburg]] and its allies fought against the Protestant princes of Germany, supported at various times by Denmark, Sweden and [[Kingdom of France|France]]. The Habsburgs, who ruled Spain, Austria, the [[Lands of the Bohemian Crown|Crown of Bohemia]], [[Kingdom of Hungary|Hungary]], [[Slovene Lands]], the [[Spanish Netherlands]] and much of Germany and Italy, were staunch defenders of the Catholic Church.

Two main tenets of the [[Peace of Westphalia]], which ended the Thirty Years' War, were:
* All parties would now recognise the [[Peace of Augsburg]] of 1555, by which each prince would have the right to determine the religion of his own state, the options being Catholicism, Lutheranism, and now Calvinism (the principle of {{Lang|la|[[cuius regio, eius religio]]}}).
* Christians living in principalities where their denomination was ''not'' the established church were guaranteed the right to practice their faith in public during allotted hours and in private at their will.

The treaty also effectively ended the Papacy's pan-European political power. [[Pope Innocent X]] declared the treaty "null, void, invalid, iniquitous, unjust, damnable, reprobate, inane, empty of meaning and effect for all times" in his apostolic brief ''Zelo Domus Dei''. European sovereigns, Catholic and Protestant alike, ignored his verdict.{{sfn|Cross|2005}}{{page needed|date=March 2015}}

=== Consequences of the Reformation ===
In nations that remained Catholic, or reverted to it, remaining Protestants sometimes lived as [[crypto-Protestantism |crypto-Protestants]], also called [[Nicodemite]]s, contrary to the urging of John Calvin, who wanted them to live their faith openly.<ref>Eire, Carlos M. N. "Calvin and Nicodemism: A Reappraisal".  ''Sixteenth Century Journal'' X:1, 1979.</ref> Some [[Crypto-Protestantism|crypto-Protestants]] have been identified as late as the 19th century after immigrating to Latin America.<ref name="Martínez Fernández">{{Cite journal |last=Martínez Fernández |first= Luis|title=Crypto-Protestants and Pseudo-Catholics in the Nineteenth-Century Hispanic Caribbean |journal=Journal of Ecclesiastical History |volume=51|issue=2|pages= 347–65 |year=2000|doi=10.1017/S0022046900004255 |s2cid=162296826}}</ref> 

In Britain from the Elizabethan period, dissenters called [[Recusancy|Recusants]] included both Catholic families and [[English Dissenters]] (Quakers, Ranters, Diggers, Grindletonians, etc.): almost the entire Irish population were recusants from the imposed Protestant Church of Ireland.<ref>Burton, Edwin, Edward D'Alton, and Jarvis Kelley. ''1911 Catholic Encyclopedia, Penal Laws III: Ireland''.</ref>

Travel and migration between countries became more difficult. "In 1500, a Christian could travel from one end of Europe to another without fear of persecution; by 1600, every form of Christianity was illegal somewhere in Europe."<ref>Wandell, Lee Palmer (2011) ''The Reformation'', Cambridge University Press ''apud'' {{cite web |last1= Leithart |first1=Peter |title=How the Reformation Failed |url= https://theopolisinstitute.com/how-the-reformation-failed/ |website= Theopolis Institute |date=18 April 2017}}</ref> Two prolonged series of conflicts, the [[French Wars of Religion]] (1562–1598) and the [[Thirty Years' War]] (1618–1648) resulted in between [[European wars of religion#Death toll|six and sixteen million deaths]].

As well as wars, most countries and colonies of Europe enacted discriminatory legislation, these only winding down in the late 18th century [[Age of Enlightenment]]. For example, the [[Popery Act]]s (1699 and 1704) disallowed Irish Catholic schooling and purchase of land, and changed inheritance law; it was repealed by the 1778 and 1791 [[Catholic Relief Act]]s. The [[Quebec Act]] (1774) re-allowed Catholics to worship and hold public office, but was one of the [[Intolerable Acts]] that precipitated the [[American Revolutionary War]].   In the countries of the [[Holy Roman Empire]], the [[Patent of Toleration]] (1781, 1782) allowed religious toleration for non-Catholic Christians and Jews. In France, the [[Edict of Toleration]] (1787) proposed the non-persecution of non-Catholics and Jews. However vestiges of Reformation-period legal discrimination continued: for example, currently, a Roman Catholic, or someone married to a Roman Catholic, may not be crowned the [[Succession_to_the_British_throne#Religion|British Monarch]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Succession |url=https://www.royal.uk/encyclopedia/succession?page=8 |website=www.royal.uk |language=en}}</ref>

=== Radical Reformation ===
{{main|Radical Reformation}}

In parts of Germany, Switzerland, and Austria, a majority sympathised with the Radical Reformation despite intense persecution.<ref name=horsch>{{cite book |last=Horsch|first=John|title= Mennonites in Europe|date=1995|publisher= Herald Press|isbn= 978-0-8361-1395-2|page=299}}</ref> Although the surviving proportion of the European population that rebelled against Catholic, [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] and [[Zwinglian]] churches was small, Radical Reformers wrote profusely and the literature on the Radical Reformation is disproportionately large, partly as a result of the proliferation of the Radical Reformation teachings in the United States.<ref>{{cite book|title= The European Reformation|author= Euan Cameron|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=1991|isbn= 978-0-19-873093-4 |place=New York}}</ref>

Despite significant diversity among the early Radical Reformers, some "repeating patterns" emerged among many Anabaptist groups. Many of these patterns were enshrined in the [[Schleitheim Confession|''Schleitheim Confession'' (1527)]] and include [[Believer's baptism|believers' (or adult) baptism]], memorial view of the [[Eucharist|Lord's Supper]], belief that Scripture is the final authority on matters of faith and practice, emphasis on the [[New Testament]] and the [[Sermon on the Mount]], interpretation of Scripture in community, separation from the world and a [[Two kingdoms doctrine|two-kingdom theology]], [[pacifism]] and [[nonresistance]], communal ownership and economic sharing, belief in the freedom of the will, non-swearing of oaths, "yieldedness" (''Gelassenheit'') to one's community and to God, the [[Shunning|ban]] (i.e., shunning), salvation through divinization (''Vergöttung'') and ethical living, and discipleship (''Nachfolge Christi'').<ref>Andrew P. Klager, "Ingestion and Gestation: Peacemaking, the Lord's Supper, and the Theotokos in the Mennonite-Anabaptist and Eastern Orthodox Traditions", ''Journal of Ecumenical Studies'' 47, no. 3 (summer 2012): pp. 441–42.</ref>

=== Literacy ===
[[Image:Lutherbibel.jpg|thumb|right|[[Modern High German]] translation of the [[Christian Bible]] by the Protestant reformer [[Martin Luther]] (1534).<ref name= "Lobenstein-Reichmann">{{cite encyclopedia |author-last= Lobenstein-Reichmann |author-first=Anja |date=29 March 2017 |title=Martin Luther, Bible Translation, and the German Language |url= https://oxfordre.com/religion/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-382 |encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion |location= [[Oxford]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.382 |url-access=subscription |isbn= 978-0-19934037-8}}</ref>  The widespread popularity of the [[Luther Bible|Bible translated into High German by Luther]] helped establish modern Standard High German.<ref name= "Lobenstein-Reichmann"/>]]

The Protestant Reformation was a triumph of [[literacy]] and the new [[printing press]].<ref name= Cameron>{{cite book|author=Euan Cameron |title=The European Reformation|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=_6a3kgsbkBIC|date=1 March 2012|publisher= OUP Oxford|isbn= 978-0-19-954785-2}}{{page needed|date= March 2015}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|In the end, while the Reformation emphasis on Protestants reading the Scriptures was one factor in the development of literacy, the impact of printing itself, the wider availability of printed works at a cheaper price, and the increasing focus on education and learning as key factors in obtaining a lucrative post, were also significant contributory factors.{{sfn|Pettegree|2000a|p= 543}}}}<ref name= Rubin270>Rubin, "Printing and Protestants" Review of Economics and Statistics pp.&nbsp;270–86</ref><ref name= ":1">{{Cite web|url= http://cep.lse.ac.uk/pubs/download/dp1367.pdf |archive-url= https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://cep.lse.ac.uk/pubs/download/dp1367.pdf |archive-date= 2022-10-09 |url-status=live|title= Media, Markets and Institutional Change: Evidence from the Protestant Reformation}}</ref> [[Luther Bible|Luther's translation of the Bible into High German]] (the [[New Testament]] was published in 1522; the [[Old Testament]] was published in parts and completed in 1534) was also decisive for the [[German language]] and its evolution from [[Early New High German]] to Modern Standard German.<ref name="Lobenstein-Reichmann"/> Luther's translation of the Bible promoted the development of non-local forms of language and exposed all speakers to forms of German from outside their own area.<ref>Birgit Stolt, "Luther's Translation of the Bible." ''[[Lutheran Quarterly]]'' 28.4 (2014): 373–400.</ref> The publication of Luther's Bible was a decisive moment in the [[History of Germany#Culture and literacy|spread of literacy in early modern Germany]],<ref name= "Lobenstein-Reichmann"/> and stimulated as well the printing and distribution of religious books and pamphlets. From 1517 onward, religious pamphlets flooded Germany and much of Europe.{{sfn|Edwards|1994}}{{page needed |date=March 2015}}{{refn|group= note|In the first decade of the Reformation, Luther's message became a movement, and the output of religious pamphlets in Germany was at its height.{{sfn|Pettegree|Hall|2004|p=786}}}}

By 1530, over 10,000 publications are known, with a total of ten million copies. The Reformation was thus a media revolution.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-08-19 |title=Media, markets and institutional change: Evidence from the Protestant Reformation |url=https://cepr.org/voxeu/columns/media-markets-and-institutional-change-evidence-protestant-reformation |access-date=2025-02-10 |website=CEPR |language=en}}</ref> Luther strengthened his attacks on Rome by depicting a "good" against "bad" church. From there, it became clear that print could be used for propaganda in the Reformation for particular agendas, although the term propaganda derives from the Catholic ''[[Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples|Congregatio de Propaganda Fide]]'' (''Congregation for Propagating the Faith'') from the Counter-Reformation. Reform writers used existing styles, cliches and stereotypes which they adapted as needed.{{sfn|Edwards|1994}}{{page needed|date=March 2015}} Especially effective were writings in German, including Luther's translation of the Bible, his [[Luther's Small Catechism|Smaller Catechism]] for parents teaching their children, and his [[Luther's Large Catechism|Larger Catechism]], for pastors.

Illustrations in the German Bible and in many tracts popularised Luther's ideas. [[Lucas Cranach the Elder]] (1472–1553), the great painter patronised by the electors of Wittenberg, was a close friend of Luther, and he illustrated Luther's theology for a popular audience. He dramatised Luther's views on the relationship between the Old and New Testaments, while remaining mindful of Luther's careful distinctions about proper and improper uses of visual imagery.{{sfn|Weimer|2004|pp = 387–405}}

===Outcomes===
Protestants have to some extent developed [[Protestant culture|their own culture]], with major contributions in education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy and the arts and many other fields.<ref name= "Karl Heussi 1956 pp. 317–319">Karl Heussi, ''Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte'', 11. Auflage (1956), Tübingen (Germany), pp. 317–19, 325–26</ref> Various outcomes of the Reformation have been suggested by scholars: improved [[human capital]] formation, the disputed [[Protestant work ethic]], improved [[economic development]], the modern state, and "dark" outcomes:{{sfn|Becker|Pfaff|Rubin|2016}}

==== Human capital formation ====
Claims include:
* Higher literacy rates,<ref name= "Becker 531–596">{{Cite journal|last1= Becker|first1=Sascha O.|last2= Woessmann |first2=Ludger|date=1 May 2009|title=Was Weber Wrong? A Human Capital Theory of Protestant Economic History|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics |volume=124|issue=2 |pages= 531–96|doi=10.1162/qjec.2009.124.2.531|issn=0033-5533|citeseerx= 10.1.1.657.9590|hdl= 1893/1653|s2cid= 3113486}}</ref>{{refn|group=note| Some historians restrict this to the Mercantile countries (Holland, England)<ref name=allen>1800s Germany had the literacy rate as neighbouring France.{{cite journal |last1=Allen |first1=Robert C. |title=Progress and Poverty in Early Modern Europe |journal=The Economic History Review |date=2003 |volume=56 |issue=3 |pages=403–443 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0289.2003.00257.x |jstor=3698570 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3698570 |issn=0013-0117}}</ref> or the influence of the [[Age of Enlightenment]].<ref >{{Cite book|last=Vincent |first=David |editor-first1=John L. |editor-first2=Eileen H. |editor-last1=Rury |editor-last2=Tamura |title=The Oxford Handbook of the History of Education |year=2019 |chapter=The Modern History of Literacy |chapter-url=https://oro.open.ac.uk/69072/3/69072.pdf |access-date=December 21, 2023 |at=7 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199340033.013.30 |isbn=978-0-199-34003-3 }}</ref> }} 
* Lower gender gap in school enrollment and literacy rates.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Becker|first1=Sascha O.|last2= Woessmann |first2=Ludger|date=1 December 2008|title=Luther and the Girls: Religious Denomination and the Female Education Gap in Nineteenth-century Prussia |journal= Scandinavian Journal of Economics |volume=110|issue=4 |pages= 777–805|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9442.2008.00561.x|s2cid= 146303270 |issn=1467-9442}}</ref>
* Higher primary school enrollment.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1 = Becker|first1=Sascha O.|last2= Woessmann |first2=Ludger|date=1 May 2010 |title=The effect of Protestantism on education before the industrialization: Evidence from 1816 Prussia|journal=Economics Letters|volume=107|issue=2|pages=224–28|doi= 10.1016/j.econlet.2010.01.031|citeseerx=10.1.1.517.2101|s2cid= 154922179}}</ref>
* Higher public spending on schooling and better educational performance of military conscripts.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Boppart|first1=Timo|last2= Falkinger|first2=Josef |last3= Grossmann |first3=Volker|last4=Woitek|first4=Ulrich|last5=Wüthrich|first5= Gabriela|date=1 April 2013|title=Under which conditions does religion affect educational outcomes?|journal= Explorations in Economic History|volume=50|issue=2|pages=242–66|doi= 10.1016/j.eeh.2012.12.001|s2cid= 154150626 |url= https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/77611/1/Under_which_Conditions_Boppart.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/77611/1/Under_which_Conditions_Boppart.pdf |archive-date= 2022-10-09 |url-status= live}}</ref>
* Higher capability in reading, numeracy, essay writing, and history.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1= Boppart|first1=Timo|last2=Falkinger|first2=Josef|last3=Grossmann|first3= Volker|date=1 April 2014|title= Protestantism and Education: Reading (the Bible) and Other Skills|journal= Economic Inquiry |volume=52|issue=2|pages=874–95|doi= 10.1111/ecin.12058 |s2cid=10220106|issn=1465-7295|url=https://www.cesifo-group.de/DocDL/cesifo1_wp3314.pdf |archive-url= https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.cesifo-group.de/DocDL/cesifo1_wp3314.pdf |archive-date= 2022-10-09 |url-status= live}}</ref>

==== Protestant ethic {{anchor|Protestant work ethic}} ====
{{Main|Protestant work ethic}}
Claims include:
* More hours worked.<ref>{{Cite SSRN|last=Spenkuch|first=Jörg L.|date=20 March 2011|title=The Protestant Ethic and Work: Micro Evidence from Contemporary Germany|ssrn=1703302}}</ref>
* Divergent stated attitudes about the absolute priority of work between Protestants and Catholics.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Schaltegger |first1= Christoph A.|last2=Torgler|first2= Benno|date=1 May 2010|title= Work ethic, Protestantism, and human capital|journal=Economics Letters|volume=107|issue=2|pages=99–101 |doi= 10.1016/j.econlet.2009.12.037|url=https://eprints.qut.edu.au/32407/1/COVERSHEET_C32407.pdf |archive-url= https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://eprints.qut.edu.au/32407/1/COVERSHEET_C32407.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status= live}}</ref>
* Fewer referendums on leisure, state intervention, and redistribution in Swiss cantons with more Protestants.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1= Basten|first1=Christoph|last2= Betz|first2=Frank|title=Beyond Work Ethic: Religion, Individual, and Political Preferences |journal=American Economic Journal: Economic Policy |volume=5|issue= 3|pages=67–91 |doi=10.1257/pol.5.3.67|year=2013 |url= http://www.aeaweb.org/aej/pol/app/2011-0231_app.pdf |archive-url= https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.aeaweb.org/aej/pol/app/2011-0231_app.pdf |archive-date= 2022-10-09 |url-status= live|hdl= 1814/62006}}</ref>
* Lower life satisfaction when unemployed.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1= van Hoorn|first1=André|last2= Maseland |first2=Robbert|date=1 July 2013 |title= Does a Protestant work ethic exist? Evidence from the well-being effect of unemployment|journal=Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization|volume= 91|pages=1–12 |doi= 10.1016/j.jebo.2013.03.038|url=https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/17796724/van_Hoorn_2013_JEBO_AC_Does_a_Protestant_work_ethic_exist.pdf |archive-url= https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/17796724/van_Hoorn_2013_JEBO_AC_Does_a_Protestant_work_ethic_exist.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status= live|hdl=11370/edf4c610-0828-4ba7-b222-9ce36e3c58be|s2cid= 73683588 |hdl-access=free}}</ref>
* Pro-market attitudes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hayward|first1=R. David|last2=Kemmelmeier |first2= Markus |date= 1 November 2011|title=Weber Revisited A Cross-National Analysis of Religiosity, Religious Culture, and Economic Attitudes |journal=Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology |volume=42|issue=8|pages=1406–1420 |doi= 10.1177/0022022111412527 |s2cid= 9101480 |issn=0022-0221}}</ref>
* Higher relative income growth in Protestant cities compared to Catholic cities (correlated with larger growth in Protestant city size.)<ref name= "Becker 531–596"/>

==== Economic development ====
[[File:Katharina-v-Bora-1526.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Katharina von Bora]] played a role in shaping social ethics during the Reformation.]]
Claims include:
* Different levels of income tax revenue per capita, % of labor force in manufacturing and services, and incomes of male elementary school teachers.<ref name="Becker 531–596"/>
* Growth of Protestant cities.<ref>{{Cite journal|last= Cantoni |first=Davide|date=1 August 2015|title=The Economic Effects of the Protestant Reformation: Testing the Weber Hypothesis in the German Lands|journal=Journal of the European Economic Association |volume= 13 |issue= 4|pages=561–98|doi=10.1111/jeea.12117 |issn= 1542-4774|hdl= 10230/11729 |s2cid=7528944 |hdl-access= free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url= http://voxeu.org/article/protestant-reformation-economic-institutions-and-development|title=Origins of growth: How state institutions forged during the Protestant Reformation drove development |website=VoxEU |access-date= 26 April 2016|date=26 April 2016}}</ref>
* Greater entrepreneurship among religious minorities in Protestant states.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1= Nunziata|first1=Luca|last2=Rocco|first2= Lorenzo|date=1 January 2014|title=The Protestant Ethic and Entrepreneurship: Evidence from Religious Minorities from the Former Holy Roman Empire|journal=Mpra Paper |url= https://ideas.repec.org/p/pra/mprapa/53566.html|publisher=University Library of Munich, Germany}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1= Nunziata |first1=Luca|last2=Rocco|first2= Lorenzo |date=20 January 2016|title= A tale of minorities: evidence on religious ethics and entrepreneurship |journal= Journal of Economic Growth |volume=21|issue=2|pages= 189–224|doi= 10.1007/s10887-015-9123-2 |s2cid= 55740195|issn= 1381-4338}}</ref>
* Different social ethics facilitating impersonal trade.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Arruñada|first=Benito|date=1 September 2010|title=Protestants and Catholics: Similar Work Ethic, Different Social Ethic*|journal=The Economic Journal |volume=120 |issue= 547 |pages=890–918|doi=10.1111/j.1468-0297.2009.02325.x|issn= 1468-0297 |hdl=10230/624|s2cid=6753991 |hdl-access=free}}</ref>
*Industrialization.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Spater|first1=Jeremy|last2= Tranvik|first2=Isak|date=1 November 2019|title=The Protestant Ethic Reexamined: Calvinism and Industrialization |journal= Comparative Political Studies|volume=52|issue= 13–14 |pages=1963–94|doi= 10.1177/0010414019830721 |s2cid= 204438351 |issn=0010-4140}}</ref>

==== Modern states ====
Claims include:
* The Reformation has been credited as a key factor in the development of the state system.<ref>{{cite book | url= http://press.princeton.edu/titles/8934.html |last =Nexon|first = D.H.| title = The Struggle for Power in Early Modern Europe: Religious Conflict, Dynastic Empires, and International Change |date = 20 April 2009|publisher = Princeton University Press|isbn = 978-0-691-13793-3}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Philpott|first=Daniel|date= 1 January 2000|title=The Religious Roots of Modern International Relations |journal=World Politics|volume=52|issue=2|pages=206–45|doi= 10.1017/S0043887100002604|s2cid= 40773221|issn= 1086-3338}}</ref>
* The Reformation has been credited as a key factor in the formation of transnational advocacy movements.<ref>{{Cite journal |last = Stamatov |first=Peter |date=1 August 2010 |title=Activist Religion, Empire, and the Emergence of Modern Long-Distance Advocacy Networks|journal= American Sociological Review |volume=75|issue=4|pages=607–28|doi= 10.1177/0003122410374083|s2cid= 145615068 |issn=0003-1224|hdl= 10016/33305 |hdl-access=free}}</ref>
* The Reformation impacted the Western legal tradition.<ref>{{Cite book |url= http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674022300&content=reviews |title=Law and Revolution | volume = II |author=Harold J. Berman | date=30 September 2006 |publisher= Belknap Press of Harvard University Press |isbn= 978-0-67402230-0 |access-date=19 April 2016}}</ref>
* Enabling professional [[Bureaucracy|bureaucracies]] to emerge in Europe.<ref>{{Cite journal |last= Figueroa |first=Valentín |date=2023 |title=The Protestant Road to Bureaucracy |url= https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/1/article/885481 |journal=World Politics |volume= 75 |issue=2 |pages=390–437 |doi=10.1353/wp.2023.0006 |issn= 1086-3338}}</ref>
* Establishment of state churches.<ref>{{Cite journal|last= Gorski |first=Philip S.|date=1 January 2000|title=Historicizing the Secularization Debate: Church, State, and Society in Late Medieval and Early Modern Europe, ca. 1300 to 1700 |jstor= 2657295|journal=American Sociological Review |volume=65|issue=1 |pages= 138–67 |doi=10.2307/2657295|s2cid= 147029738}}</ref>
* Poor relief and social welfare regimes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last= Pullan |first=Brian|date= 1 January 1976 |title=Catholics and the Poor in Early Modern Europe|jstor=3679070|journal= Transactions of the Royal Historical Society|volume=26|pages= 15–34 |doi= 10.2307/3679070|s2cid= 161899850}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kahl |first= Sigrun|date=1 April 2005|title= The religious roots of modern poverty policy: Catholic, Lutheran, and Reformed Protestant traditions compared |journal=European Journal of Sociology / Archives Européennes de Sociologie|volume=46|issue=1|pages= 91–126|doi=10.1017/S0003975605000044|issn=1474-0583|hdl= 11858/00-001M-0000-0012-4DFA-2 |s2cid= 9584702|hdl-access=free}}</ref>
* [[James Madison]] noted that [[Martin Luther]]'s [[two kingdoms doctrine|doctrine of the two kingdoms]] marked the beginning of the modern conception of [[separation of church and state]].<ref>{{cite book |last1= Madison |first1=James |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=I6tLmjLqRfAC&pg=PA242 |title= Madison to Schaeffer, 1821 |year= 1865 |pages= 242–43}}</ref>
* The Calvinist and Lutheran doctrine of the [[lesser magistrate]] contributed to [[resistance theory in the Early Modern period]] and was employed in the [[United States Declaration of Independence]].
* Reformers such as Calvin promoted [[mixed government]] and the [[separation of powers]],<ref>Clifton E. Olmstead (1960), ''History of Religion in the United States'', Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, pp.&nbsp;9–10</ref><ref name= "ReferenceA">Jan Weerda, ''Calvin'', in ''Evangelisches Soziallexikon'', col. 210–11</ref> which governments such as the United States subsequently adopted.<ref>Heinrich August Winkler (2012), ''Geschichte des Westens. Von den Anfängen in der Antike bis zum 20. Jahrhundert'', 3rd Ed., Munich (Germany), {{ISBN|978-3-406-59235-5}}, pp. 290ff.</ref><ref>{{cite web | title= Constitution Day 2021: Mixed Government, Bicameralism, and the Creation of the U.S. Senate | url= https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/senate-stories/constitution-day-2021-mixed-government-bicameralism.htm | date=September 17, 2021 | work=U.S. Senate | access-date= December 30, 2021}}</ref>

====World demographics====
{{pie chart|thumb = right
|caption = [[List_of_Christian_denominations_by_number_of_members|World Christianity]] by tradition in 2024 as per [[World Christian Encyclopedia|World Christian Database]]<ref name="WorldChristian Database">{{cite web |url=https://www.gordonconwell.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2024/01/Status-of-Global-Christianity-2024.pdf |title=Status of Global Christianity, 2024, in the Context of 1900–2050 |publisher=Center for the Study of Global Christianity, Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary |quote=Christian total 2,508,432,000; Catholics 1,278,009,000; Protestants 625,606,000; Independents 421,689,000; Orthodox 293,158,000; Unaffiliated 123,508,000|access-date=23 May 2024}}</ref>
|label1 = [[Catholic]]
|value1 = 48.6
|color1 = Purple
|label2 = [[Protestant]]
|value2 = 23.8
|color2 = Darkblue
|label3 = [[Non-denominational Christianity|Independent]]
|value3 = 16.0
|color3 = Orange
|label4 = [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox]]
|value4 = 11.1
|color4 = Lightblue
|label5 = Other
|value5 = 0.5
|color5 = Green}}
Today, classical Protestantism (including Anglicans) has between [[List_of_Christian_denominations_by_number_of_members#Historical_Protestantism_–_300–600_million|300 and 625 million worldwide adherents]],<ref name= "gordonconwell.edu">{{cite web |url= https://www.gordonconwell.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2024/01/Status-of-Global-Christianity-2024.pdf |title=Status of Global Christianity, 2024, in the Context of 1900–2050 |publisher=Center for the Study of Global Christianity, Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary |access-date=23 May 2024|quote=Protestants: 625,606,000; Independents: 421,689,000; Unaffiliated Christians: 123,508,000}}</ref> up to one quarter of all Christians.

And general Protestantism—broadly defined to also include Evangelical, Pentecostal, non-conformist and non-denominationalists<ref group= note>Over half of this population are in [[List_of_Christian denominations_by_number_of_members#Modern_Protestantism_–_400–500_million|Modern 
Protestant]] denominations such as Pentecostal churches which are not derived from the historical Reformation denominations; and the remaining Historical denominations include [[Arminian]] denominations such as [[List of Christian denominations by number of members#Methodism – 60–80 million|Methodists]] which do not hold to certain key Reformation doctrines, such as ''sola fide''.</ref>—constitutes the [[List of Christian denominations by number of members|second-largest form]] of Christianity (after Catholicism), with between 850,000 and 1.17 billion adherents worldwide (between 40% and 45% of all Christians)<ref name= "pewforum1">{{cite web|url= http://www.pewforum.org/files/2011/12/Christianity-fullreport-web.pdf |title= Pew forum: Grobal Christianity |date=19 December 2011 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131101114257/http://www.pewforum.org/files/2011/12/Christianity-fullreport-web.pdf |access-date=14 May 2014|archive-date=1 November 2013}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|Most current estimates place the world's Protestant population in the range of 800 million to more than 1&nbsp;billion. For example, author Hans Hillerbrand estimated a total Protestant population of 833,457,000 in 2004,<ref name= "books.google.pl">{{cite book|last = Hillerbrand|first=Hans J.|title= Encyclopedia of Protestantism: 4-volume Set|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PMSTAgAAQBAJ&pg=RA2-PA349|year=2004|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-96028-5|page=2}}</ref> while a report by Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary – 1,170,803,000 (with inclusion of independents as defined in this article) in 2024.<ref name= "gordonconwell.edu" />}} divided into an estimated 45,000 denominations.<ref>{{cite web |title=Quick Facts About Global Christianity |url=https://www.gordonconwell.edu/center-for-global-christianity/research/quick-facts/ |website=Center for the Study of Global Christianity |language=en}}</ref>

==== Other outcomes ====
Other claims include:
* Witch trials became more common in regions or other jurisdictions where Protestants and Catholics contested the religious market.<ref>{{Cite web|url= http://economics.yale.edu/sites/default/files/witch_trials.pdf|title=Witch Trials|url-status= dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160513034745/http://economics.yale.edu/sites/default/files/witch_trials.pdf|archive-date=13 May 2016}}</ref>
* Christopher J. Probst, in his book ''Demonizing the Jews: Luther and the Protestant Church in Nazi Germany'' (2012), shows that a large number of German Protestant clergy and theologians during [[Nazi Germany]] used Luther's hostile publications towards the Jews and Judaism to justify at least in part the anti-Semitic policies of the National Socialists.<ref>{{Cite web |title= Demonizing the Jews: Luther and the Protestant church in Nazi Germany / Christopher J. Probst |url= https://collections.ushmm.org/search/catalog/bib226337 |access-date= 2023-05-18 |website=Collections | publisher =United States Holocaust Memorial Museum}}</ref>
* In its decree on [[Unitatis redintegratio |ecumenism]], the [[Second Vatican Council]] of Catholic bishops declared that by contemporary dialogue that, while still holding views as the One, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church, between the churches "all are led to examine their own faithfulness to Christ's will for the Church and accordingly to undertake with vigor the task of renewal and reform" (''Unitatis Redintegratio'', 4).
* Beer production switched from using herbs to hops.<ref>{{cite web |last1= Martyris |first1=Nina |title=The Other Reformation: How Martin Luther Changed Our Beer, Too |work=NPR |date=31 October 2017 |url= https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2017/10/31/561117731/the-other-reformation-how-martin-luther-changed-our-beer-too |access-date= 29 November 2023}}</ref>

=== Historiography ===
Margaret C. Jacob argues that there has been a dramatic shift in the historiography of the Reformation. Until the 1960s, historians focused their attention largely on the great leaders and theologians of the 16th century, especially Luther, Calvin, and Zwingli. Their ideas were studied in depth. However, the rise of the [[social history|new social history]] in the 1960s led to looking at history from the bottom up, not from the top down. Historians began to concentrate on the values, beliefs and behavior of the people at large. She finds, "in contemporary scholarship, the Reformation is now seen as a vast cultural upheaval, a social and popular movement, textured and rich because of its diversity."{{sfn|Jacob|1991|p= 215}}

For example, historian John Bossy characterized the Reformation as a period where Christianity was re-cast not as "a community sustained by ritual acts, but as a teaching enforced by institutional structures," for Catholics as well as Protestants;<ref group= note>"But in the Renaissance era, and even more so in the Reformation period which followed, reliance on symbol and image gave way to the privileging of the printed or spoken word. Peace remained a fundamental Christian aspiration, but ritual and sacrament gave way to persuasion and instruction as the means to achieve it."{{harvnb|Duffy|2016}}.</ref><ref group= note>"Until the seventeenth century, …Christianity meant a body of people, but since then it refers only to a body of beliefs." {{cite journal |last1= Lewis |first1= Eleanor V. |title= (Review) Christianity in the West, 1400–1700. By John Bossy. New York: Oxford University Press, 1985 |journal= Church History |date= June 1986 |volume= 55 |issue=2 |pages= 225–26 |doi= 10.2307/3167429 |jstor= 3167429 |s2cid=162279854}}</ref> and sin was re-cast from the [[seven deadly sins]] —wrong because antisocial— to transgressions of the [[Ten Commandments]] —wrong as affronts to God.

=== Music and art ===
{{Further|Protestantism#Arts}}
{{div col|colwidth=21em}}
'''Painting and sculpture'''
*[[Northern Mannerism#Northern Mannerism, politics and religion|Northern Mannerism]]
*[[Lutheran art#Reformation era|Lutheran art]]
*[[German Renaissance#Art|German Renaissance Art]]
*[[Swedish art#Renaissance and Baroque art|Swedish art]]
*[[English art#16th and 17th centuries|English art]]
*[[Old master print#The North after Dürer|Woodcuts]]
*[[Art in the Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation|Art conflicts]]
*[[Beeldenstorm]]

'''Building'''
*[[Church architecture#The Reformation and its influence on church architecture|Influence on church architecture]]

'''Literature'''
*[[Elizabethan literature|Elizabethan]]
*[[Metaphysical poets]]
*[[Propaganda during the Reformation|Propaganda]]
*[[Welsh-language literature#16th and 17th centuries|Welsh]]
*[[Scottish literature#Early modern era|Scottish]]
*[[Irish literature#The manuscript tradition|Anglo-Irish]]
*[[German literature#German Renaissance and Reformation|German]]
*[[Czech literature#Reformation|Czech]]
*[[Swiss literature#Emergence of vernacular literature|Swiss]]
*[[Slovak literature#1500-1650|Slovak]]
*[[Sorbian literature|Sorbian]]
*[[Romanian literature#Beginning of Writing and Publishing in Romanian|Romanian]]
*[[Danish literature#16th and 17th centuries|Danish]]
*[[Faroese literature#Reformation era|Faroese]]
*[[Norwegian literature#"Four Hundred Years of Darkness"|Norwegian]]
*[[Swedish literature#Reformation literature|Swedish]]
*[[Finnish literature#Pre-Nineteenth century|Finnish]]
*[[Icelandic literature#Middle Icelandic literature|Icelandic]]
*[[Dutch Renaissance and Golden Age literature|Dutch Renaissance and Golden Age]]
*[[Folklore of the Low Countries#In folk tales|Folklore of the Low Countries]]
*[[Renaissance humanism#Sixteenth century and beyond|16th century Renaissance humanism]]
*[[16th century in poetry]]
*[[16th century in literature]]
*[[English Renaissance theatre]]

'''Musical forms'''
*[[Hymnody of continental Europe#Reformation|Hymnody of continental Europe]]
*[[Early music of the British Isles#Reformation|Music of the British Isles]]
*[[Hymn tune#The Reformation|Hymn tune]]
*[[Lutheran chorale]]
*[[Lutheran hymn]]
*[[Anglican church music#History|Anglican church music]]
*[[Exclusive psalmody]]
*[[Anglican chant]]
*[[Homophony]] vs. [[Polyphony#European polyphony|Polyphony]]

'''Liturgies'''
*[[Reformed worship#General principles and historical overview|Reformed worship]]
*[[Regulative principle of worship#John Calvin's Liturgy|Calvin's liturgy]]
*[[Formula missae]]
*[[Deutsche Messe]]
*[[Ecclesiastical Latin]]
*[[Mass (music)#Renaissance|Lutheran and Anglican Mass]] in music
*[[Cyclic mass]] vs. [[Paraphrase mass]]
*[[Pre-Tridentine Mass|Roman]] vs. [[Use of Sarum|Sarum]] Rites
*[[Sequence (musical form)|Sequence]] (retained by Lutherans, mostly banned by Trent)

'''Hymnals'''
*[[First Lutheran hymnal|First]] and [[Erfurt Enchiridion|Second]] Lutheran hymnals
*[[Eyn geystlich Gesangk Buchleyn|First Wittenberg hymnal]]
*[[Swenske songer eller wisor 1536|Swenske songer]]
*[[Thomissøn's hymnal]]
*[[Ausbund]]
*''[[Book of Common Prayer]]''
*[[Metrical psalter]]s
*[[Souterliedekens]]
*[[Book of Common Order]]
*[[Genevan Psalter]]
*[[Hymnbooks of the Church of Scotland#Scottish Psalter (1564)|Scottish Psalter]]

'''Secular music'''
*[[English Madrigal School]]
*''[[Greensleeves]]''
*[[Madrigal#Continental Europe|German madrigals]]
*[[Moravian traditional music#History|Moravian traditional music]]
*[[Meistersinger]]
{{div col end}}

Partly due to Martin Luther's love for music, music became important in Lutheranism. The study and practice of music was encouraged in Protestant majority countries. Songs such as the Lutheran hymns or the Calvinist Psalter became tools for the spread of Protestant ideas and beliefs, as well as identity flags. Similar attitudes developed among Catholics, who in turn encouraged the creation and use of music for religious purposes.{{sfn|Bertoglio|2017}}