Editing Malaria (section)

===Other===
A non-chemical vector control strategy involves genetic manipulation of malaria mosquitoes. Advances in [[genetic engineering]] technologies make it possible to introduce foreign DNA into the mosquito genome and either decrease the lifespan of the mosquito, or make it more resistant to the malaria parasite. [[Sterile insect technique]] is a genetic control method whereby large numbers of sterile male mosquitoes are reared and released. Mating with wild females reduces the wild population in the subsequent generation; repeated releases eventually eliminate the target population.<ref name="Raghavendra-2011"/>

[[Genomics]] is central to malaria research. With the [[whole genome sequencing|sequencing]] of ''P.&nbsp;falciparum'', one of its vectors ''Anopheles gambiae'', and the [[human genome]], the genetics of all three organisms in the malaria life cycle can be studied.<ref name="Aultman-2002"/> Another new application of genetic technology is the ability to produce [[Genetically modified organism|genetically modified]] mosquitoes that do not transmit malaria, potentially allowing [[biological control]] of malaria transmission.<ref name="Ito-2002"/>

In one study, a genetically modified strain of ''[[Anopheles stephensi]]'' was created that no longer supported malaria transmission, and this resistance was passed down to mosquito offspring.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gantz VM, Jasinskiene N, Tatarenkova O, Fazekas A, Macias VM, Bier E, James AA | title = Highly efficient Cas9-mediated gene drive for population modification of the malaria vector mosquito Anopheles stephensi | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 112 | issue = 49 | pages = E6736–E6743 | date = December 2015 | pmid = 26598698 | pmc = 4679060 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1521077112 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2015PNAS..112E6736G }}</ref>

[[Gene drive]] is a technique for changing wild populations, for instance to combat or eliminate insects so they cannot transmit diseases (in particular mosquitoes in the cases of malaria,<ref name="Imperial College-2021">{{cite news |url=https://www.imperial.ac.uk/news/227193/malarial-mosquitoes-suppressed-experiments-that-mimic/ |title=Malarial mosquitoes suppressed in experiments that mimic natural environments |date=28 July 2021 |access-date=21 November 2021 |archive-date=21 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211121005039/https://www.imperial.ac.uk/news/227193/malarial-mosquitoes-suppressed-experiments-that-mimic/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Zika virus|zika]],<ref name="Flam-2016">{{cite news | url=https://www.bloomberg.com/view/articles/2016-02-04/fighting-zika-virus-with-genetic-engineering | title=Fighting Zika Virus With Genetic Engineering | work=Bloomberg | date=4 February 2016 | vauthors = Flam F | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160606220755/http://www.bloomberg.com/view/articles/2016-02-04/fighting-zika-virus-with-genetic-engineering | archive-date=6 June 2016 }}</ref> dengue and yellow fever).<ref name="Fletcher-2019">{{cite news | vauthors = Fletcher M |title=Mosquito gene-editing: can it wipe out malaria? |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/global-health/science-and-disease/mutant-mosquitoes-can-gene-editing-kill-malaria/ |work=The Telegraph |date=16 July 2019 }}</ref>

In a study conducted in 2015, researchers observed a specific interaction between malaria and co-infection with the [[nematode]] Nippostrongylus brasiliensis, a pulmonary migrating [[Parasitic worm|helminth]], in mice.<ref name="Griffiths-2015">{{cite journal | vauthors = Griffiths EC, Fairlie-Clarke K, Allen JE, Metcalf CJ, Graham AL | title = Bottom-up regulation of malaria population dynamics in mice co-infected with lung-migratory nematodes | journal = Ecology Letters | volume = 18 | issue = 12 | pages = 1387–1396 | date = December 2015 | pmid = 26477454 | doi = 10.1111/ele.12534 | bibcode = 2015EcolL..18.1387G | url = https://eprints.gla.ac.uk/113103/7/113103.pdf }}</ref>  The co-infection was found to reduce the [[virulence]] of the ''Plasmodium'' parasite, the causative agent of malaria. This reduction was attributed to the nematode infection causing increased destruction of [[erythrocytes]], or red blood cells. Given that ''Plasmodium'' has a predilection for older host erythrocytes, the increased erythrocyte destruction and ensuing [[erythropoiesis]] result in a predominantly younger erythrocyte population, which in turn leads to a decrease in ''Plasmodium'' population.<ref name="Griffiths-2015" /> Notably, this effect appears to be largely independent of the host's immune control of ''Plasmodium''.

Finally, a review article published in December 2020 noted a correlation between malaria-endemic regions and [[COVID-19]] case fatality rates.<ref name="Arshad-2020">{{cite journal | vauthors = Arshad AR, Bashir I, Ijaz F, Loh N, Shukla S, Rehman UU, Aftab RK | title = Is COVID-19 Fatality Rate Associated with Malaria Endemicity? | journal = Discoveries | volume = 8 | issue = 4 | pages = e120 | date = December 2020 | pmid = 33365386 | pmc = 7749783 | doi = 10.15190/d.2020.17 | doi-access = free }}</ref> The study found that, on average, regions where malaria is endemic reported lower COVID-19 case fatality rates compared to regions without endemic malaria.

In 2017, a bacterial strain of the genus [[Serratia]] was genetically modified to prevent malaria in mosquitos<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wang S, Dos-Santos AL, Huang W, Liu KC, Oshaghi MA, Wei G, Agre P, Jacobs-Lorena M | title = Driving mosquito refractoriness to <i>Plasmodium falciparum</i> with engineered symbiotic bacteria | journal = Science | volume = 357 | issue = 6358 | pages = 1399–1402 | date = September 2017 | pmid = 28963255 | pmc = 9793889 | doi = 10.1126/science.aan5478 | bibcode = 2017Sci...357.1399W }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Servick K |title=The microbes in a mosquito's gut may help fight malaria |journal=Science |date=28 September 2017 |doi=10.1126/science.aaq0811 }}</ref> and in 2023, it has been reported that the bacterium [[Delftia tsuruhatensis]] naturally prevents the development of malaria by secreting a molecule called [[Harmane]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Huang W, Rodrigues J, Bilgo E, Tormo JR, Challenger JD, De Cozar-Gallardo C, Pérez-Victoria I, Reyes F, Castañeda-Casado P, Gnambani EJ, Hien DF, Konkobo M, Urones B, Coppens I, Mendoza-Losana A, Ballell L, Diabate A, Churcher TS, Jacobs-Lorena M | title = <i>Delftia tsuruhatensis</i> TC1 symbiont suppresses malaria transmission by anopheline mosquitoes | journal = Science | volume = 381 | issue = 6657 | pages = 533–540 | date = August 2023 | pmid = 37535741 | doi = 10.1126/science.adf8141 | bibcode = 2023Sci...381..533H }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Offord C |title=Microbe stops mosquitoes from harboring malaria parasite |journal=Science |date=3 August 2023 |doi=10.1126/science.adk1267 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=2023-08-04 |title=Chance discovery helps fight against malaria |language=en-GB |publisher=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/health-66394117 |access-date=2023-08-04 |archive-date=2023-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230804002648/https://www.bbc.com/news/health-66394117 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Other avenue that can contribute to understanding of malaria transmission, is the source of meal for the vector when they have the parasites. Its known that plant sugars are the primary source of nutrients for survival of adult mosquitoes,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Foster WA | title = Mosquito sugar feeding and reproductive energetics | journal = Annual Review of Entomology | volume = 40 | issue = 1 | pages = 443–474 | date = January 1995 | pmid = 7810991 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.en.40.010195.002303 }}</ref> therefore utilising this link for management of the vector will contribute in mitigating malaria transmission.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gu W, Müller G, Schlein Y, Novak RJ, Beier JC | title = Natural plant sugar sources of Anopheles mosquitoes strongly impact malaria transmission potential | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 6 | issue = 1 | pages = e15996 | date = January 2011 | pmid = 21283732 | pmc = 3024498 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0015996 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2011PLoSO...615996G }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hien DF, Dabiré KR, Roche B, Diabaté A, Yerbanga RS, Cohuet A, Yameogo BK, Gouagna LC, Hopkins RJ, Ouedraogo GA, Simard F, Ouedraogo JB, Ignell R, Lefevre T | title = Plant-Mediated Effects on Mosquito Capacity to Transmit Human Malaria | journal = PLOS Pathogens | volume = 12 | issue = 8 | pages = e1005773 | date = August 2016 | pmid = 27490374 | pmc = 4973987 | doi = 10.1371/journal.ppat.1005773 | doi-access = free }}</ref>