Editing History of science (section)

===Continuation of Scientific Revolution===
The Scientific Revolution continued into the [[Age of Enlightenment]], which accelerated the development of modern science.

====Planets and orbits====
{{Main|Copernican Revolution}}
The heliocentric model revived by [[Nicolaus Copernicus]] was followed by the model of planetary motion given by [[Johannes Kepler]] in the early 17th century, which proposed that the planets follow [[ellipse|elliptical]] orbits, with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse. In ''[[Astronomia Nova]]'' (''A New Astronomy''), the first two of the [[Kepler's laws of planetary motion|laws of planetary motion]] were shown by the analysis of the orbit of Mars. Kepler introduced the revolutionary concept of planetary orbit. Because of his work astronomical phenomena came to be seen as being governed by physical laws.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Goldstein|first1=Bernard|last2=Hon|first2=Giora|date=2005|title=Kepler's Move from Orbs to Orbits: Documenting a Revolutionary Scientific Concept|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/246602496|journal=Perspectives on Science|volume=13|pages=74–111|doi=10.1162/1063614053714126 |s2cid=57559843 }}</ref>

====Emergence of chemistry====
{{Main|Chemical revolution}}
A decisive moment came when "chemistry" was distinguished from [[alchemy]] by [[Robert Boyle]] in his work ''[[The Sceptical Chymist]]'', in 1661; although the alchemical tradition continued for some time after his work. Other important steps included the gravimetric experimental practices of medical chemists like [[William Cullen]], [[Joseph Black]], [[Torbern Bergman]] and [[Pierre Macquer]] and through the work of [[Antoine Lavoisier]] ("[[List of people considered father or mother of a scientific field|father of modern chemistry]]") on [[oxygen]] and the law of [[conservation of mass]], which refuted [[phlogiston theory]]. Modern chemistry emerged from the sixteenth through the eighteenth centuries through the material practices and theories promoted by alchemy, medicine, manufacturing and mining.<ref>{{Cite journal |editor=Eddy, Matthew Daniel |editor2=Mauskopf, Seymour |editor3=Newman, William R. |title=Chemical Knowledge in the Early Modern World |journal=Osiris |volume=29 |date=2014 |pages=1–15 |url=https://www.academia.edu/6629576 |last1=Newman |first1=William R. |last2=Mauskopf |first2=Seymour H. |last3=Eddy |first3=Matthew Daniel |pmid=26103744 |doi=10.1086/678110 |s2cid=29035688 |access-date=19 September 2014 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730040038/https://www.academia.edu/6629576 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Florin George Calian |url=http://archive.org/details/AlkimiaOperativaAndAlkimiaSpeculativa.SomeModernControversiesOnThe |title=Alkimia Operativa and Alkimia Speculativa. Some Modern Controversies on the Historiography of Alchemy}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hroncek |first=Susan |date=2017 |title=From Egyptian Science to Victorian Magic: On the Origins of Chemistry in Victorian Histories of Science |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/711530 |journal=Victorian Review |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=213–228 |doi=10.1353/vcr.2017.0032 |s2cid=166044943 |issn=1923-3280 |access-date=28 April 2022 |archive-date=12 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210512071829/https://muse.jhu.edu/article/711530 |url-status=live }}</ref>

====Calculus and Newtonian mechanics====
{{Main|History of calculus|Newton's laws of motion}}
In 1687, Isaac Newton published the ''[[Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica|Principia Mathematica]]'', detailing two comprehensive and successful physical theories: [[Newton's laws of motion]], which led to classical mechanics; and [[Newton's law of universal gravitation]], which describes the fundamental force of gravity.

====Circulatory system====
[[William Harvey]] published ''[[Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus|De Motu Cordis]]'' in 1628, which revealed his conclusions based on his extensive studies of [[vertebrate]] [[circulatory system]]s.<ref name="Schuster 1996"/> He identified the central role of the [[heart]], [[Artery|arteries]], and [[vein]]s in producing blood movement in a circuit, and failed to find any confirmation of [[Galen]]'s pre-existing notions of heating and cooling functions.<ref>Power, d'Arcey. Life of Harvey. Longmans, Green, & co.</ref> The history of early modern biology and medicine is often told through the search for the seat of the soul.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ancient-soul/|title=Ancient Theories of Soul|last=Stanford|date=2003|website=Plato.Stanford|access-date=2018-07-09|archive-date=7 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190807014659/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ancient-soul/|url-status=live}}</ref> Galen in his descriptions of his foundational work in medicine presents the distinctions between arteries, veins, and nerves using the vocabulary of the soul.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Galen on Respiration and the arteries|last=Galen|first=David|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1984|location=UCSC library|page=201}}</ref>

====Scientific societies and journals====
A critical innovation was the creation of permanent scientific societies and their scholarly journals, which dramatically sped the diffusion of new ideas. Typical was the founding of the [[Royal Society]] in London in 1660 and its journal in 1665 the [[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society|Philosophical Transaction of the Royal Society]], the first scientific journal in English.<ref>Meyrick H. Carré, "The Formation of the Royal Society" ''History Today'' (Aug 1960) 10#8 pp 564–571.</ref> 1665 also saw the first journal in French, the [[Journal des sçavans|Journal des ''sçavans'']]. Science drawing on the works{{sfnp|Heilbron|2003|p=741}} of [[Isaac Newton|Newton]], [[Descartes]], [[Blaise Pascal|Pascal]] and [[Gottfried Leibniz|Leibniz]], science was on a path to modern [[mathematics]], [[physics]] and [[technology]] by the time of the generation of [[Benjamin Franklin]] (1706–1790), [[Leonhard Euler]] (1707–1783), [[Mikhail Lomonosov]] (1711–1765) and [[Jean le Rond d'Alembert]] (1717–1783). [[Denis Diderot]]'s ''[[Encyclopédie]]'', published between 1751 and 1772 brought this new understanding to a wider audience. The impact of this process was not limited to science and technology, but affected [[history of philosophy|philosophy]] ([[Immanuel Kant]], [[David Hume]]), [[history of religion|religion]] (the increasingly significant impact of [[Relationship between religion and science|science upon religion]]), and society and politics in general ([[Adam Smith]], [[Voltaire]]).

====Developments in geology====
Geology did not undergo systematic restructuring during the [[Scientific Revolution]] but instead existed as a cloud of isolated, disconnected ideas about rocks, minerals, and landforms long before it became a coherent science. [[Robert Hooke]] formulated a theory of earthquakes, and [[Nicholas Steno]] developed the theory of [[Law of superposition|superposition]] and argued that [[fossils]] were the remains of once-living creatures. Beginning with [[Thomas Burnet (theologian)|Thomas Burnet]]'s ''Sacred Theory of the Earth'' in 1681, natural philosophers began to explore the idea that the Earth had changed over time. Burnet and his contemporaries interpreted Earth's past in terms of events described in the Bible, but their work laid the intellectual foundations for secular interpretations of Earth history.