Editing History of science (section)

==Age of Enlightenment==
{{Further|Science in the Age of Enlightenment}}
[[File:JKepler.jpg|thumb|right|Portrait of [[Johannes Kepler]], one of the founders and fathers of modern [[astronomy]], the [[scientific method]], [[Natural science|natural]] and [[modern science]]<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.dpma.de/english/our_office/publications/milestones/greatinventors/johanneskepler/index.html | title=DPMA &#124; Johannes Kepler }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/kepler/education/johannes |title=Johannes Kepler: His Life, His Laws and Times &#124; NASA |access-date=1 September 2023 |archive-date=24 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624003856/https://www.nasa.gov/kepler/education/johannes/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/kepler.html | title=Molecular Expressions: Science, Optics and You – Timeline – Johannes Kepler }}</ref>]]
[[File:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg| thumb | upright | right | Isaac Newton initiated [[classical mechanics]] in [[physics]].]]

===Continuation of Scientific Revolution===
The Scientific Revolution continued into the [[Age of Enlightenment]], which accelerated the development of modern science.

====Planets and orbits====
{{Main|Copernican Revolution}}
The heliocentric model revived by [[Nicolaus Copernicus]] was followed by the model of planetary motion given by [[Johannes Kepler]] in the early 17th century, which proposed that the planets follow [[ellipse|elliptical]] orbits, with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse. In ''[[Astronomia Nova]]'' (''A New Astronomy''), the first two of the [[Kepler's laws of planetary motion|laws of planetary motion]] were shown by the analysis of the orbit of Mars. Kepler introduced the revolutionary concept of planetary orbit. Because of his work astronomical phenomena came to be seen as being governed by physical laws.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Goldstein|first1=Bernard|last2=Hon|first2=Giora|date=2005|title=Kepler's Move from Orbs to Orbits: Documenting a Revolutionary Scientific Concept|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/246602496|journal=Perspectives on Science|volume=13|pages=74–111|doi=10.1162/1063614053714126 |s2cid=57559843 }}</ref>

====Emergence of chemistry====
{{Main|Chemical revolution}}
A decisive moment came when "chemistry" was distinguished from [[alchemy]] by [[Robert Boyle]] in his work ''[[The Sceptical Chymist]]'', in 1661; although the alchemical tradition continued for some time after his work. Other important steps included the gravimetric experimental practices of medical chemists like [[William Cullen]], [[Joseph Black]], [[Torbern Bergman]] and [[Pierre Macquer]] and through the work of [[Antoine Lavoisier]] ("[[List of people considered father or mother of a scientific field|father of modern chemistry]]") on [[oxygen]] and the law of [[conservation of mass]], which refuted [[phlogiston theory]]. Modern chemistry emerged from the sixteenth through the eighteenth centuries through the material practices and theories promoted by alchemy, medicine, manufacturing and mining.<ref>{{Cite journal |editor=Eddy, Matthew Daniel |editor2=Mauskopf, Seymour |editor3=Newman, William R. |title=Chemical Knowledge in the Early Modern World |journal=Osiris |volume=29 |date=2014 |pages=1–15 |url=https://www.academia.edu/6629576 |last1=Newman |first1=William R. |last2=Mauskopf |first2=Seymour H. |last3=Eddy |first3=Matthew Daniel |pmid=26103744 |doi=10.1086/678110 |s2cid=29035688 |access-date=19 September 2014 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730040038/https://www.academia.edu/6629576 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Florin George Calian |url=http://archive.org/details/AlkimiaOperativaAndAlkimiaSpeculativa.SomeModernControversiesOnThe |title=Alkimia Operativa and Alkimia Speculativa. Some Modern Controversies on the Historiography of Alchemy}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hroncek |first=Susan |date=2017 |title=From Egyptian Science to Victorian Magic: On the Origins of Chemistry in Victorian Histories of Science |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/711530 |journal=Victorian Review |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=213–228 |doi=10.1353/vcr.2017.0032 |s2cid=166044943 |issn=1923-3280 |access-date=28 April 2022 |archive-date=12 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210512071829/https://muse.jhu.edu/article/711530 |url-status=live }}</ref>

====Calculus and Newtonian mechanics====
{{Main|History of calculus|Newton's laws of motion}}
In 1687, Isaac Newton published the ''[[Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica|Principia Mathematica]]'', detailing two comprehensive and successful physical theories: [[Newton's laws of motion]], which led to classical mechanics; and [[Newton's law of universal gravitation]], which describes the fundamental force of gravity.

====Circulatory system====
[[William Harvey]] published ''[[Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus|De Motu Cordis]]'' in 1628, which revealed his conclusions based on his extensive studies of [[vertebrate]] [[circulatory system]]s.<ref name="Schuster 1996"/> He identified the central role of the [[heart]], [[Artery|arteries]], and [[vein]]s in producing blood movement in a circuit, and failed to find any confirmation of [[Galen]]'s pre-existing notions of heating and cooling functions.<ref>Power, d'Arcey. Life of Harvey. Longmans, Green, & co.</ref> The history of early modern biology and medicine is often told through the search for the seat of the soul.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ancient-soul/|title=Ancient Theories of Soul|last=Stanford|date=2003|website=Plato.Stanford|access-date=2018-07-09|archive-date=7 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190807014659/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ancient-soul/|url-status=live}}</ref> Galen in his descriptions of his foundational work in medicine presents the distinctions between arteries, veins, and nerves using the vocabulary of the soul.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Galen on Respiration and the arteries|last=Galen|first=David|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1984|location=UCSC library|page=201}}</ref>

====Scientific societies and journals====
A critical innovation was the creation of permanent scientific societies and their scholarly journals, which dramatically sped the diffusion of new ideas. Typical was the founding of the [[Royal Society]] in London in 1660 and its journal in 1665 the [[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society|Philosophical Transaction of the Royal Society]], the first scientific journal in English.<ref>Meyrick H. Carré, "The Formation of the Royal Society" ''History Today'' (Aug 1960) 10#8 pp 564–571.</ref> 1665 also saw the first journal in French, the [[Journal des sçavans|Journal des ''sçavans'']]. Science drawing on the works{{sfnp|Heilbron|2003|p=741}} of [[Isaac Newton|Newton]], [[Descartes]], [[Blaise Pascal|Pascal]] and [[Gottfried Leibniz|Leibniz]], science was on a path to modern [[mathematics]], [[physics]] and [[technology]] by the time of the generation of [[Benjamin Franklin]] (1706–1790), [[Leonhard Euler]] (1707–1783), [[Mikhail Lomonosov]] (1711–1765) and [[Jean le Rond d'Alembert]] (1717–1783). [[Denis Diderot]]'s ''[[Encyclopédie]]'', published between 1751 and 1772 brought this new understanding to a wider audience. The impact of this process was not limited to science and technology, but affected [[history of philosophy|philosophy]] ([[Immanuel Kant]], [[David Hume]]), [[history of religion|religion]] (the increasingly significant impact of [[Relationship between religion and science|science upon religion]]), and society and politics in general ([[Adam Smith]], [[Voltaire]]).

====Developments in geology====
Geology did not undergo systematic restructuring during the [[Scientific Revolution]] but instead existed as a cloud of isolated, disconnected ideas about rocks, minerals, and landforms long before it became a coherent science. [[Robert Hooke]] formulated a theory of earthquakes, and [[Nicholas Steno]] developed the theory of [[Law of superposition|superposition]] and argued that [[fossils]] were the remains of once-living creatures. Beginning with [[Thomas Burnet (theologian)|Thomas Burnet]]'s ''Sacred Theory of the Earth'' in 1681, natural philosophers began to explore the idea that the Earth had changed over time. Burnet and his contemporaries interpreted Earth's past in terms of events described in the Bible, but their work laid the intellectual foundations for secular interpretations of Earth history.

===Post-Scientific Revolution===
====Bioelectricity====
During the late 18th century, researchers such as [[Hugh Williamson]]<ref name="VanderVeer 2011">{{cite journal |last=VanderVeer |first=Joseph B. |title=Hugh Williamson: Physician, Patriot, and Founding Father |journal=Journal of the American Medical Association |volume=306 |issue=1 |date=6 July 2011 |doi=10.1001/jama.2011.933 }}</ref> and [[John Walsh (scientist)|John Walsh]] experimented on the effects of electricity on the human body. Further studies by [[Luigi Galvani]] and [[Alessandro Volta]] established the electrical nature of what Volta called [[galvanism]].<ref name="Edwards 2021">{{cite web |last=Edwards |first=Paul |title=A Correction to the Record of Early Electrophysiology Research on the 250th Anniversary of a Historic Expedition to Île de Ré |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-03423498/document |publisher=HAL open-access archive |access-date=6 May 2022 |date=10 November 2021 |id=hal-03423498 |archive-date=6 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220506153323/https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-03423498/document |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Bresadola 367–380">{{cite journal |last=Bresadola |first=Marco |title=Medicine and science in the life of Luigi Galvani |journal=Brain Research Bulletin |date=15 July 1998 |volume=46 |issue=5 |pages=367–380 |doi=10.1016/s0361-9230(98)00023-9 |pmid=9739000|s2cid=13035403}}</ref>

====Developments in geology====
[[File:Anoplotherium 1812 Skeleton Sketch.jpg|thumb|1812 skeletal and muscular reconstruction of ''[[Anoplotherium]] commune'' by Georges Cuvier based on fossil remains from the Paris Basin]]
Modern geology, like modern chemistry, gradually evolved during the 18th and early 19th centuries. [[Benoît de Maillet]] and the [[Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon|Comte de Buffon]] saw the Earth as much older than the 6,000 years envisioned by biblical scholars. [[Jean-Étienne Guettard]] and [[Nicolas Desmarest]] hiked central France and recorded their observations on some of the first geological maps. Aided by chemical experimentation, naturalists such as Scotland's [[John Walker (natural historian)|John Walker]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Matthew Daniel Eddy|title=The Language of Mineralogy: John Walker, Chemistry and the Edinburgh Medical School 1750–1800|date=2008|publisher=Ashgate|url=https://www.academia.edu/1112014|access-date=19 September 2014|archive-date=3 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903230852/http://www.academia.edu/1112014/The_Language_of_Mineralogy_John_Walker_Chemistry_and_the_Edinburgh_Medical_School_1750-1800_2008_|url-status=live}}</ref> Sweden's Torbern Bergman, and Germany's [[Abraham Werner]] created comprehensive classification systems for rocks and minerals—a collective achievement that transformed geology into a cutting edge field by the end of the eighteenth century. These early geologists also proposed a generalized interpretations of Earth history that led [[James Hutton]], [[Georges Cuvier]] and [[Alexandre Brongniart]], following in the steps of [[Nicolas Steno|Steno]], to argue that layers of rock could be dated by the fossils they contained: a principle first applied to the geology of the Paris Basin. The use of [[index fossil]]s became a powerful tool for making geological maps, because it allowed geologists to correlate the rocks in one locality with those of similar age in other, distant localities.

====Birth of modern economics====
[[File:AdamSmith.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Adam Smith]] wrote ''[[The Wealth of Nations]]'', the first modern work of economics]]
The basis for [[classical economics]] forms [[Adam Smith]]'s ''[[The Wealth of Nations|An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations]]'', published in 1776. Smith criticized [[mercantilism]], advocating a system of free trade with [[division of labour]]. He postulated an "[[invisible hand]]" that regulated economic systems made up of actors guided only by self-interest. The "invisible hand" mentioned in a lost page in the middle of a chapter in the middle of the "[[Wealth of Nations]]", 1776, advances as Smith's central message.

====Social science====
Anthropology can best be understood as an outgrowth of the Age of Enlightenment. It was during this period that Europeans attempted systematically to study human behavior. Traditions of jurisprudence, history, philology and sociology developed during this time and informed the development of the social sciences of which anthropology was a part.