Editing History of medicine (section)

==== Places ====

===== France =====
Paris (France) and Vienna were the two leading medical centers on the Continent in the era 1750–1914.

In the 1770s–1850s Paris became a world center of medical research and teaching. The "Paris School" emphasized that teaching and research should be based in large hospitals and promoted the professionalization of the medical profession and the emphasis on sanitation and public health. A major reformer was [[Jean-Antoine Chaptal]] (1756–1832), a physician who was Minister of Internal Affairs. He created the Paris Hospital, health councils, and other bodies.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Weiner DB, Sauter MJ | title = The city of Paris and the rise of clinical medicine | journal = Osiris | volume = 18 | issue = 1 | pages = 23–42 | year = 2003 | pmid = 12964569 | doi = 10.1086/649375 | s2cid = 10692225 }}</ref>

<!--hmm, this section overlaps with the Bacteriology bit above-->
[[Louis Pasteur]] (1822–1895) was one of the most important founders of [[medical microbiology]]. He is remembered for his remarkable breakthroughs in the causes and preventions of diseases. His discoveries reduced mortality from [[puerperal fever]], and he created the first [[vaccine]]s for [[rabies]] and [[anthrax]]. His experiments supported the [[germ theory of disease]]. He was best known to the general public for inventing a method to treat milk and wine to prevent it from causing sickness, a process that came to be called [[pasteurization]]. He is regarded as one of the three main founders of [[microbiology]], together with [[Ferdinand Cohn]] and [[Robert Koch]]. He worked chiefly in Paris and in 1887 founded the [[Pasteur Institute]] there to perpetuate his commitment to basic research and its practical applications. As soon as his institute was created, Pasteur brought together scientists with various specialties. The first five departments were directed by [[Emile Duclaux]] (general [[microbiology]] research) and [[Charles Chamberland]] (microbe research applied to [[hygiene]]), as well as a biologist, [[Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov]] (morphological microbe research) and two physicians, [[Jacques-Joseph Grancher]] ([[rabies]]) and [[Emile Roux]] (technical microbe research). One year after the inauguration of the Institut Pasteur, Roux set up the first course of microbiology ever taught in the world, then entitled ''Cours de Microbie Technique'' (Course of microbe research techniques). It became the model for numerous research centers around the world named "Pasteur Institutes."<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Reynolds MD | title = How Pasteur Changed History: The Story of Louis Pasteur and the Pasteur Institute. | location = Bradenton, Florida | publisher = McGuinn & McGuire | date = 1994 | isbn = 978-1-881117-05-6 }}</ref><ref name="Weindling_1992">{{cite book | vauthors = Weindling P | chapter = Scientific elites and laboratory organization in fin de siècle Paris and Berlin: The Pasteur Institute and Robert Koch's Institute for Infectious Diseases compared | pages = 170–188 | veditors = Cunningham A, Williams P |title=he Laboratory revolution in medicine |date=1992 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-40484-6}}</ref>

===== Vienna =====
The First Viennese School of Medicine, 1750–1800, was led by the Dutchman [[Gerard van Swieten]] (1700–1772), who aimed to put medicine on new scientific foundations—promoting unprejudiced clinical observation, botanical and chemical research, and introducing simple but powerful remedies. When the [[Vienna General Hospital]] opened in 1784, it at once became the world's largest hospital and physicians acquired a facility that gradually developed into the most important research centre.<ref>{{cite book| vauthors = Fichtner PS |title= Historical Dictionary of Austria|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TKkuN007YcYC&pg=PA326|year= 2009|publisher=Scarecrow Press|pages=326–27|isbn=978-0-8108-6310-1}}</ref> Progress ended with the Napoleonic wars and the government shutdown in 1819 of all liberal journals and schools; this caused a general return to traditionalism and eclecticism in medicine.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lesky E | title = [Cabanis and certainty of medicine] | journal = [[Gesnerus]] | volume = 11 | issue = 3–4 | pages = 152–182 | year = 1988 | pmc = 2557344 | doi = 10.1017/S0025727300070800 | pmid = 14366253 }}</ref>

Vienna was the capital of a diverse empire and attracted not just Germans but Czechs, Hungarians, Jews, Poles and others to its world-class medical facilities. After 1820 the Second Viennese School of Medicine emerged with the contributions of physicians such as [[Carl Freiherr von Rokitansky]], [[Josef Škoda]], [[Ferdinand Ritter von Hebra]], and [[Ignaz Philipp Semmelweis]]. Basic medical science expanded and specialization advanced. Furthermore, the first [[dermatology]], eye, as well as [[ear, nose, and throat]] clinics in the world were founded in Vienna. The textbook ''Lehre von den Augenkrankheiten'' of [[ophthalmologist]] [[Georg Joseph Beer]] (1763–1821) combined practical research and philosophical speculations, and became the standard reference work for decades.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Lesky E | author-link1 = Erna Lesky |title=The Vienna Medical School of the 19th century |date=1976 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |location=Baltimore |isbn=978-0-8018-1908-7}}</ref>

===== Berlin =====
[[File:Charité vom Futurium aus.jpg|thumbnail|[[Charite]] in Berlin]]
After 1871 Berlin, the capital of the new German Empire, became a leading center for medical research. The [[Charité]] is tracing back its origins to the year 1710. More than half of all German Nobel Prize winners in Physiology or Medicine, including [[Emil von Behring]], [[Robert Koch]] and [[Paul Ehrlich]], worked there. Koch, (1843–1910), was a representative leader. He became famous for isolating ''[[Bacillus anthracis]]'' (1877), the ''[[Mycobacterium tuberculosis|Tuberculosis bacillus]]'' (1882) and ''[[Vibrio cholerae]]'' (1883) and for his development of [[Koch's postulates]]. He was awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] in 1905 for his tuberculosis findings. Koch is one of the founders of [[microbiology]] and [[modern medicine]]. He inspired such major figures as Ehrlich, who discovered the first [[antibiotic]], [[arsphenamine]] and [[Gerhard Domagk]], who created the first commercially available antibiotic, [[Prontosil]].<ref name="Weindling_1992"/>